(PDF) Sport for Development€¦ · This also counts for ‘youth and education’, ‘gender equality’ and ‘peace and reconciliation’ ‐ development goals that are foci in Dutch - PDFSLIDE.NET (2024)

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Sport for Development the potential value anD next StepS

Frank van E

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Sport for development:

the potential value and next StepS

review of policy, programS

and academic reSearch 1998-2013

Van Eekeren, F., K. ter Horst & D. Fictorie (2013),

‘s-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: NSA International,

KNVB, Right To Play Netherlands

SummarySportforDevelopment(SfD)aspirestoachievesocialimpactbyusingsport,playandphysicalactivity.TheDutchorganizationsNSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation(KNVB)andtheDutchofficeofRightToPlay,implementingpartnersoftheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairsinthefieldofSfD,wishtofurtherimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirSfDprograms.Forthissoundevidenceandmoreinsightinworkingmechanismsbetweensportanddevelopmentareneeded.TheyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademicdocumentinresponsetothequestion:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Toanswerthisquestion,UtrechtUniversityhasdoneathoroughpolicyandacademicliteraturereview,includingtheanalysisofmorethan200articles,booksandpolicydocumentsoverthe1998‐2013period.

OriginsTheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90’sen00’sislargelyduetotwofactors.First,therehasbeenanincreasedrecognitionofthesocietalmeaningofsportbypoliticiansandpolicymakers.Beforethe1990’ssportwasconsideredaluxury.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportscannotonlybeasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.Nationalandinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarationsconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositivemeaningstosport.Thetenorseemsthatatleast‘sportcanplayaroleasatoolfordevelopment’oreven‘buildabetterworld’.Second,thefactorwhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfordevelopmentmovementisthe‘aidparadigmshift’indevelopmentcooperation.Criticsontraditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditionaldevelopmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries.Newinsightsintheconceptof‘development’ledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisislaidonsocialdevelopmentandcreationofsocialnetworks.Thisopeneddoorsforneworganizations,suchasSfDorganizations.Theirsport‐orientedapproachisconsideredrefreshingandoffersnewpossibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.

PositionoftheNetherlandsSince1998,theDutchgovernmenthaspublishedanumberofconsecutiveSfDpolicydocuments,whichhavehadaninfluenceinternationally,bothatpolicylevelandinpractice.However,eachpolicydocumenthadanexpirationdate.ThemainreasonfortheseshortlivedpolicydocumentshasbeenthefluctuatingpoliticalattentionandaccompanyingresourcesforSfD.ThecurrentSfDpolicyandprogramonlyallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.ThecurrentimplementingpartnersoftheDutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantroleinthecontinuityoftheDutchparticipationinSfD.Adistinct‘Dutchapproach’hasnotbeendeveloped,buttherearesimilaritiesintheapproachesofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,suchasafocuson‘software’,thetransferofknowledgeandskills,developmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals,localcapacitybuildingthroughmulti‐stakeholderapproach,localcoachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels,knowledgedevelopment,andavarietyoflocalimplementingpartners.

AcademicresearchTheincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthe‘power’ofsportfordevelopment,suchasindividualdevelopment,healthpromotionanddiseaseprevention,promotionofgenderequality,socialintegrationandthedevelopmentofsocialcapital,peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution,post‐disaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife,economicdevelopmentandsocialmobilization.Since2000,academicinterestandoutputonsportfordevelopmentissuesincreasedsignificantlyandthepolicyclaimshavebeentestedandoftenchallengedinmorethan2,000studies.

Basedonthesestudies,itcanbestatedthatsporthassomeuniquefeaturestocontributetodevelopment,especiallyincomparisonwithotherinterventions.Individualsandgroupsallovertheworldareinterestedinsports,regardlessofbackground,age,race,religion,genderorstatus.Therefore,sportcanattracttargetgroupsthatareusuallyhardtoreach.Theycaneasilybeinvolved,sportisvisibleandaccessible,sportoffersrolemodelsanditcontainsintrinsicvaluesthatplayanimportantroleinsociety.Particularsportactivitiesandsocialprocessesofparticipationcanbekeytoreachcertaindevelopmentgoals.

Nevertheless,manyclaimsofthepowerofsportinpolicyandpracticecannotbemetaccordingtoempiricalresearch.Researchanalysishasmadeclearthatsporthasthepotentialtocontributetodevelopmentgoals,butsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtothedesireddevelopmentaloutcomes.Accordingtotheacademicliterature,healthistheonlyoverarchingoutcomethatshowsadirectrelationshipwithphysicalactivity.Forallotheroverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesitishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportfordevelopmentactivitiesanddevelopmentoutcomes.Thisalsocountsfor‘youthandeducation’,‘genderequality’and‘peaceandreconciliation’‐developmentgoalsthatarefociinDutchfundedSfDprograms.

Atthesametime,academicresearchoffersclearsuggestionstousesportasavehicletocontributetothesegoals.Itisimportanttoapproachsportas‘siteforsocializationexperiences’,notcausesofsocializationoutcomes.Itisnotsportinitselfthatleadsautomaticallytodevelopment.Sporttakesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.

AbasicSfDmodelToprovideinsightinthepotentialofsportfordevelopmentandhowtocontributetodevelopmentinthebestpossibleway,wedevelopedabasicSfDmodel.ThismodeltakesintoaccountthattherelationbetweensportanddevelopmentoftenisindirectandthattheoutcomesofSfDprogramsdependon,sometimeshardtoaffect,variables.Themodelstartswithsportasasiteforsocializationexperienceandthendistinguishes‘necessaryconditions’,’supportingconditions’,‘themomentoftruth’,‘intermediateoutcomes’and‘overarchingoutcomes’takingintoaccountexternalvariablesaswell.

Anecessaryconditionforanyoutcomeisparticipationinsport.Supportingconditionsrefertoprocessesandorganizationalandprogramcomponentsthatshouldleadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes.Frequentlymentionedsupportingconditionsarerelatedtotheorganizationoftheactivitiesandprograms,theroleofcoachesorleadersandthesocialenvironmentinwhichthe

activitiestakeplace.SomeconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject,whileothersaremorecontextspecific.Ifconditionsaremet,sportmayresultinintermediateoutcomes.Examplesofintermediateoutcomesarethedevelopmentof‘lifeskills’,increasedsocialinteraction,butalsodevelopmentofleadershipandcommunitybuilding.Theseintermediateoutcomes,oftenreferredtoas(aspectsof)socialcapital,areanessentialelementintheachievementoftheoverarchingdevelopmentaloutcomes,likechildandyouthdevelopment,genderequality,conflictresolutionandpeace.Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatintermediateoutcomesarenotalwaysdesiredorpositiveoutcomes.Sportcanleadtoinjuries,toexclusionandtoanti‐socialbehavior.Thevalueofsportfordevelopmentiscreatedduring‘themomentoftruth’,i.e.theactualinteractionbetweenasportcoachorleaderandtheparticipants.Theexactmechanismsduring‘themomentoftruth’,whichresultineitherpositiveornegativeoutcomes,arestillunclear,includingthebestwayforSfDorganizationstofacilitate‘themomentoftruth’.Whatisrequiredisadevelopmentalapproachbasedonarealisticviewonthemeaningofsport,andanunderstandingofthesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmayleadtodesiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsororganizationsincertaincircumstances.Fromthisperspective,monitoringandevaluationneedtopursuethisunderstandingviaparticipatory,process‐centeredandformativeevaluation.

NextstepsTheacademicliteraturelearnsthat,tomaximizetheoutcomes,SfDorganizationsshouldacceptthatadirectrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopmentishardtoproveandthattheyshouldfocusontheintermediateoutcomesinstead.AccordingtothepresentedSfDbasicmodel,SfDorganizationsshouldtakecarethatthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremettoincreasethechanceofachievingthedesiredoutcomes.IntheyearstocomeoneofthemainchallengesfortheSfDsectoristoinvestinqualityofprogramsandsustainabilityofresults.Dutchorganizationscanplayavaluableroleindealingwiththesechallenges,makinguseofthefindingsandrecommendationsofthisreview.Theycanincreasetheirimpactusingsportfordevelopmentbyastrongerfocuson:

• Facilitatingthemomentoftruth:ThismeansthatSfDorganizationsoperatefromaservicemanagementperspectivetofacilitateandbesubservienttointeractionbetweenthecoachandparticipants,whichdeterminestoalargeextenttheoutcomesofaprogram.

• Investinginlocalinvolvement,capacityandpartnerships:ThismeansthatSfDinvolveslocalcivilsocietyorganizations,i.e.sportorganizationsand/orotherorganizations,whichcansupportthemomentoftruth.Furtherinvestmentinlocalpartnershipsandorganizationalcapacitywillbecrucialtodeliversustainableprogramswithimpact.

• Programsatmicrolevel,structurallysupportedatmesoandmacrolevel:ThismeanstheSfDorganizations–eitherlocalorforeign‐havetostructurallycooperatewithcivilsocietyorganizationsandhavetomakesurethattheyhaverelationswithgovernments,multilateralinstitutionsand(i)NGOs,whoaresupportivetotheSfDprogramsatgrassrootslevel.

• Integrationofpractice,policyandresearch:ThismeansthatprogramscanbeimprovedifsystematiccooperationbetweenSFDorganizationsandlocalpartnersandacademicinstitutionsisstimulatedandfacilitated.Thiscooperationshouldleadtosmartintegrationofscientificresearchandevidence‐besidesmonitoringandevaluation‐withinSfDprograms,especiallywithregardtotheorganizationofpartnershipandcapacitybuilding.

Index

Summary ...........................................................................................................................2

Preface...............................................................................................................................7

1. Originsanddefinitions ...................................................................................................9

1.1 Recognitionofsportfordevelopment .............................................................................. 9

1.1.1 Recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport ..................................................................10

1.1.2 Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation ................................................11

1.2 Claims .............................................................................................................................12

1.3 Definitions.......................................................................................................................14

1.3.1 Sport ...........................................................................................................................14

1.3.2 Development...............................................................................................................15

1.3.3 Sport(for)development ..............................................................................................16

2. Policies,programsandapproaches..............................................................................18

2.1 PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands ..........................................................................18

2.2 Internationalpolicyandprograms .................................................................................. 22

2.3 Dutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspective .............................................. 26

2.3.1 Donorcountrypolicies ................................................................................................ 26

2.3.2 Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches .............................................................. 28

3. Academicresearch:towardsamodel ........................................................................... 31

3.1 Theexpansionofacademicinterest.................................................................................31

3.1.1 Quantity ......................................................................................................................31

3.1.2 Quality ........................................................................................................................34

3.2 Towardsabasicmodelforsportfordevelopment ...........................................................38

3.2.1 Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes...........................................................................38

3.2.2 Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 40

3.2.3 Necessaryandsupportingconditions ......................................................................... 42

3.2.4 Themomentoftruth ...............................................................................................43

3.2.5 Uniquenessofsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 44

3.2.6 Amodelforsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 45

4. Specificdevelopmentissues........................................................................................ 47

4.1 Childandyouthdevelopment:Education ........................................................................47

4.1.1 Intermediateoutcomes .............................................................................................. 48

4.1.2 Conditions .............................................................................................................. 49

4.2 Childandyouthdevelopment:Behaviorchange............................................................. 50

4.2.1 Intermediateoutcomes............................................................................................51

4.2.2 Conditions ...............................................................................................................51

4.3 Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment..................................................... 54

4.3.1 Intermediateoutcomes ...............................................................................................55

4.3.2 Conditions .............................................................................................................. 58

4.4 Peace‐buildingandconflictresolution .............................................................................61

4.4.1 Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 62

4.4.2 Conditions ...............................................................................................................63

5. Conclusionandnextsteps...........................................................................................67

5.1 Sport’spotentialtocontributetodevelopment ...............................................................67

5.1.1 Claimsvs.empiricalresearch .......................................................................................67

5.1.2 Dutchpolicyandpractice............................................................................................ 68

5.2 ValuablenextstepsforDutchSfDorganizations ............................................................ 69

Literature ......................................................................................................................... 71

PrefaceInrecentyears,thefieldofSportforDevelopment(SfD)hasgrownexponentially,withhundredsofinitiativesaroundtheglobe.Allinitiativesaspiretohavesocialimpactbyusingsport,playandphysicalactivity.Whereasfiveyearsago166organizationscouldbefoundonthe‘InternationalPlatformonSportforDevelopment’(Kidd,2008),today484initiativesarelisted1.Theamountofprogramsisalmostimpossibletooverseeandsportisclaimedtobea‘universallanguage’andthe‘ultimatetoolforsocialchangeanddevelopment’byavarietyofactors,suchastheUNOfficeonSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP),theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)andnationalgovernments.

ThisemergeofSfDisremarkable.Untilthe1990s,sportwasdismissedasaluxuryandfundingsportsprogramsindevelopingcountrieswasnotatallanoptionworthreconsideringforgovernmentsandinternationaldevelopmentagencies(VanEekeren,2006).Majorshiftsanddevelopmentshavetakenplaceovertheyears,bothatthenationalandinternationallevel.WhereastheNetherlandswasoneofthepioneersinthefieldforalongtimeandoneofthefirstcountriestoformulateformalpolicyregardingsportfordevelopmentin1998,todayvariousother(international)organizationsandcountrieshaveemergedto‘pickuptheball’.Simultaneously,UNAgencies,internationalsportfederations,internationalandnationalnon‐governmentalorganizations(NGOs)andnationalgovernmentsstartedincorporatingsportastoolfordevelopmentintheirpoliciesandagendas.

Essentially,sportisincreasinglybecomingacceptedbothasagoalinitselfandasamediumtoachievedevelopmentobjectives.Asaresult,relevantquestionsarise,suchas:Whenandhowcansportbeameaningfulinstrumentfordevelopmentoradevelopmentgoalinitself?Whatarethepossibleoutcomesofsportinspecificsituationsforspecificdevelopmentgoals?Whichconditionsarenecessarytoachievethesepositiveoutcomes?Whatarethelimitsofsportfordevelopmentprograms?Howcansportfordevelopmentorganizationsadequatelyusetheknowledgeavailableintheirprogramdesignandexecution?Howshouldtheyorganizethemselves,andwithwhomshouldtheycooperate?

Thesequestionshaveledtotheacademiccommunitytakinganinterestinsportfordevelopmentasanobjectforresearch.Nowadays,academicsareinvolvedinmonitoringandevaluatingSfDprograms,andthenumberofcriticalfollowersofthesectorisgrowing.Thesecriticsclaimthat‘thebelief’inthepotentialofsportisoftenbasedonthe‘commonsense’ofadvocateswhoalreadyareconvincedofthepowerofsport.TheirbeliefisreflectedinUNphraseologyandvariouscountrypoliciesthatsoundwonderfulandpromising,butareoftenthinandpoorlyfounded.Withoutasoundfoundation,thereisariskthat‘sportfordevelopment’isbasedupontheclaimsof‘sportevangelists’(Coalter,2010).

1www.sportanddev.orgJuly2013.Thisnumberoforganizationsmightbethetipoftheiceberg,sincemany‐oftenlocalbased‐SFDorganizationsarenotregisteredattheplatform.

Amorecriticalandacademicapproachwillhelptoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoffutureprojectsandtofirmlyestablishtheissuefortheyearstocome.Thisentailsbeingwillingandabletolearn.Increasingthelearningcapacityofthesectormaybethebiggestchallengeintheyearsahead(VanEekeren,2006).

NSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation(KNVB)andRightToPlayhaveaddressedthischallenge.Overthepast15years,thesethreeorganizationshavebeenthemainDutchactorsinthesportfordevelopmentlandscape‐settingupprogramsindifferentcountriesworldwide.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayapproachsportasameansforaddressingsocialissuesandachievingdevelopmentgoals.Theyaimtoaddresssocialissuessuchaschildandyouthdevelopment,peace‐buildingandconflictresolutionandwomenempowerment.Thethreeorganizationscollaborateintheprogram‘SportforDevelopment2012‐2015’,initiatedandfundedbytheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairs.Themainobjectiveoftheorganizationsistodevelopandexecutewell‐designedprogramsatgrassrootslevelineightdevelopingcountries,whichareallfocuscountriesinDutchforeignpolicy:Kenya,Mali,Egypt,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,SurinameandthePalestinianTerritories.

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayrealizethatasoundevidencebaseandinsightinworkingmechanismsareneededtoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirfutureprograms.Therefore,theyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademicbackgrounddocument,whichprovidesanunderpinninganalysisofsportfordevelopment.

Themainquestionofthisdocumentis:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Thequestionisansweredthroughathoroughpolicyandacademicliteraturereview,forwhichmorethan200articles,booksandpolicydocumentsoverthe1998‐2013periodhavebeenanalyzed.Withthefollowingchaptersweendeavortoformulateananswer:

Chapteronedescribestheoriginsof‘Sportfordevelopment’andwhatisunderstoodbytheconcept,asmanystakeholdersdefinethesignificanceofsportintheirownway.

Chaptertwoprovidesahistoricaloverviewofthefieldofsportfordevelopmentinternationally,inwhichtherelevantpoliciesandmilestonesaffectingthematurationandgrowthofthesectorwillbeoutlined.Inthisoverview,theNetherlandsisthepointofreferenceandacomparisonwithothercountriesandstakeholdersinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentwillbemade.

Chaptersthreeandfourelaborateonthecurrentbodyofacademicknowledgeinthefieldofsportfordevelopment.First,wewilloutlinehowtheamountofacademicpublicationshasincreasedsince1998.Subsequently,wewillprovideinsightinwhatisscientificallyknownaboutthepotentialofsport,withspecialattentionforthethematicareas,whichareparticularlyrelevantforDutchpolicyandtheworkofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.Thiswillresultinabasicmodelforthepotentialvalueofsportfordevelopment.

Chapterfiveformulatesananswertothecentralquestion.Byconcludingwhattheaddedvalueofsportfordevelopmentis,thelimitsofsportwillbediscussedaswell.Futurechallengesandopportunitiesforpractice,researchandpolicydevelopmentareoutlined.

1OriginsanddefinitionsThischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductionoftheconceptofsportfordevelopment.Itdescribestheoriginsofusingsporttoachievedevelopmentalgoals(onthenationalandinternationallevel).Thesecondpartofthechapterprovidesanoverviewofthemostusedclaimsanddefinitionsof‘sportfordevelopment’inordertoreachacommonperspectiveonwhatSfDentailsandhowdifferentprogramscanbeclassified.

1.1 RecognitionofsportfordevelopmentThelegitimacyofsportfordevelopmentisnowadaysbasedonlong‐standingtraditionalassertionsaboutthenatureandcontributionofsporttosociety.Dunning(1999)simplystates:“Sportmatters”.Sportrevealscharacteristicsaboutasociety;throughthetypesofsporttheydo,throughtheimportancetheyattachtosport,throughtheamountofpeople,aboveallwomen,whodosportsandthroughthewaytheydosports.Sportcanbeseenasamirrorofsocietywhichreflectsandinfluencescontemporaryissues,or,asformulatedbyBriene,Koopman&Goessen(2005):“Sportispartofsocietyandsocietyispartofsport”.

Inhistoricalterms,theideathatparticipationinsportoffersautility(otherthanbeingenjoyedforitsownsake)canbetracedtothemid‐nineteenthcenturyUnitedKingdom.Middle‐classreformersintheareasofeducationandurbanwelfarebegantodeveloptheideathatsportparticipation,whenappropriatelydirected,couldbeinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcharacter,workdiscipline,teamwork,fairplay,andothersociallyapprovedcharacteristics(VanBottenburg,2004).IntheUnitedKingdom,sportbecameincreasinglyusedineducationalsettings,intheformofphysicaleducationandtheorganizationofgames.Furthermore,sportwasbeingusedbycommunityorganizationsanddetentioncenters,wheresportwasapproachedasatoolforcharacterbuildingorchanging.Subsequently,theseideasspreadtootherfirstworldcountriesandtheircolonies.

ThisisoneofthereasonswhyCoalter(2013)arguesthat‘sportfordevelopment’isnotanewfield,asisproclaimedbymany(e.g.Kidd,2008).Inindustrializedcountries,sportshavebeenatopicinpublicpolicyforalongtimenow.Inthefirstplacetoextendsocialrightsofcitizenship,whilealsoemphasizingthepresumedwidercollectiveandindividualbenefitsofsport,referredtoas‘externalities’byeconomists(Coalter,2007).DespiteCoalter’sclaimthatSfDisnotnew,therewasmarginalattentionforsportastoolorcatalystfordevelopmentindevelopingcountriespriortothe1990s.Althoughsomeindividualcountry‐levelinitiativeswereundertaken,sportwasmainlyseenaseitherluxuryorleisure.

TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90’sen00’sislargelyduetotwofactors:1)The(renewed)recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport2)Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation.

TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90’sen00’sislargelyduetotwofactors:1)Therecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport2)Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation

1.1.1 RecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsportSportsandpoliticshavebeen(artificially)separatedforalongtime.BothpoliticiansandsportadministratorsstucktotheadageofformerIOCpresidentAveryBrundageofalmostsixtyyearsago:‘[s]portiscompletelyfreeofpolitics’(ascitedinCashmore,1990).IntheNetherlands,governmentinterferedaslittleaspossibleinsportsaffairs.Sportwasseenasaprivatedomain,wheregovernmentintervention(andfunding)wasunnecessaryandinappropriate.Acombinationofsportanddevelopmentwasoutofthequestion.Developmentcooperationpolicywasfocusedon'hard'povertyissues,includingagriculture,infrastructureandwaterandsanitation.Sportwasseenasluxury.

Theperspectiveonsporthaschangeddramaticallyinrecentyears.InhindsightthischangebeganintheNetherlandsin1992.Atthetime,areportwaspublishednamed‘Sportasasourceofinspirationforoursociety’(ATKearney/NOC*NSF,1992).Thereportmadegovernmentsreflectontherelationshipbetweensportspolicyandthesocialsignificanceofsport(VanBottenburg&Schuyt,1996).Gradually,publicfundscameavailabletoachievesocialgoalssuchaseconomicgrowth,socialinclusionandhealththroughsport(Boessenkooletal.,2008).Itisintheseareasthatsporthasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinthepublicdomainandpartofthepublicdebate.

Thisnewthinkingonthevalueofsportcoincideswithideasaboutpublicvalueandthegovernment’sroleinsocietyingeneralandisconsistentwithbroadersocio‐politicaldevelopments:Dutchgovernmentsinthe1990sand2000sincreasinglyreliedonthepersonalresponsibilityofcitizensandprivateorganizations.Thereseemedtobeanewideaonsocialengineering,althoughthistimeitisnotthegovernmentbutcitizenswhohavetoimprovesociety.Citizensmustdemonstrateactivecitizenshipinadvocatingforpublicinterests(Verhoeven&Ham,2010).Addressingsocialissuesisnolongerthedomainofgovernmentalone,itisalsoaroleoftheprivatesector,civilsocietyandindividuals(albeitincooperationwithgovernment).Sportorganizationsareoftenregardedascivilsocietyorganizationsandtherefore,politiciansandpolicymakersencouragesportorganizationstotakeonasocialrole.SportsorganizationsintheNetherlandstapintothisdevelopment,claimingtheirsocialpositionandarguingacausalrelationbetweensportandsolvingsocialproblems.Whereclassiccareorwelfarepathwayshavenotledtothedesiredsolution,thisisnowexpectedfromthesportsector.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportsisnotonlyasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.

Abriefinventoryofnationalandinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarations(EU,UN,governments,internationalsportfederations)showsthat,alsooutsidetheNetherlands,policy‐makersandpoliticiansconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositivemeaningstosports.Thetenorseemsthatatleast‘sportcanplayausefulroleasatoolfordevelopment’(EuropeanParliament,2005)oreven‘buildabetterworld’(IOC,2013).Nowadays,itishardtoimaginethatsportisnotusedtoaddressallkindsofsocialissues.Developingandinvestinginthesporthas‐intheeyesofmany‐notonlysportingvalue,butalsovalueforotherdomains.Or,asformerNOC*NSFpresidentEricaTerpstratendstosay:‘Sportisgoldforsociety’.

Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportsisnotonlyasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.

Thisrecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsporthasopeneddoorsforsportswithindevelopmentcooperation.Anno2013,theUnitedNationsstate:‘Sportcannolongerbeconsideredaluxurywithinanysociety,butisratheranimportantinvestmentinthepresentandfuture,particularlyindevelopingcountries’(UN,2013).

1.1.2 ChangesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperationOtherfactorswhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfordevelopmentmovementarethe‘aidparadigmshift’andtheemergenceof‘thefourthpillar’indevelopmentcooperation.

Thereismuchdebateamongthegeneralpublic,politiciansandacademicsaboutthecurrentroleofdevelopmentaid;whatithasaccomplishedaftermorethanfiftyyearsofdevelopmentwork,itseffectiveness,anditsprospectsforthefuture.Perspectivesonthesequestionsarediverse.Assessmentsrangefromclaimsthatdevelopmentaidhashadquitelimitedsuccess(Easterly,2006);thatitservestopromulgatetheneomercantilisttendenciesoftheWest(PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002);or,thatwhilebeingmodestly

successful,areframingofpurposesandgoalsisnowinordertomatchtheneedsofachangingworld(Sen,2006).

Criticsontraditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditionaldevelopmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries,despiteofthebillionsofeurosthatwereinvestedoverthelast50years.Theircritique,amongothercomments,focusesontheemphasisoneconomicandmaterialdevelopmentinthetraditionaldevelopmentcooperationsector(cf.PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002).Newinsightsintheconceptof‘development’ledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisisputonsocialdevelopmentandcreationofsocialnetworks.

Traditionally,officialdevelopmentcooperationhasbeentheplayingfieldofgovernments,multilateralinstitutionsandestablisheddevelopmentNGOs.DeveltereandDeBruyn(2009)callthemthe‘threepillars’ofdevelopmentcooperation.Inthelastdecadehowever,otheractors(suchasbusinesses,migrantorganizations,tradeunions,professionalgroups,groupsoffriends,schools,etc.)insocalled‘donor’or‘Northern’countrieshaveactivelyshowninterestindevelopmentrelatedactivities,andindevelopingandimplementingdevelopmentorientedinitiativesindevelopingcountries(the‘South’).Thishasledtotheemergeofthe‘fourthpillar’andtheinvolvementofcivilsocietyorganizationsindevelopmentco‐operation.

Thefourthpillaroffersanalternativeforthepublicthathaslostconfidenceintraditionaldevelopmentcooperationandforthosewhosupportadevelopmentapproachthatfocusesonsocialdevelopmentandthecreationofsocialnetworks.Politicalappreciationofthefourthpillarisontheriseandtheircredibilityisgrowingattheinternationallevel.Representativesofthefourthpillarcanincreasinglybefoundininternationalnetworksandatforums,wheretheyhaveearnedtheirplacenexttoUNexpertsandotherdevelopmentspecialists(Develtere&DeBruyn,2009).

Thefourthpillar,includingSfD,offersanalternativeforthepublicthathaslostconfidenceintraditionaldevelopmentcooperation.

Sportfordevelopmentorganizations,suchasNSAInternationalandRightToPlay,orprivatesportorganizationswhogotinvolvedinsportfordevelopment,suchasKNVB,canbeconceivedasrepresentativesofthefourthpillar.Theirsport‐orientedapproachisrefreshingandoffersnewpossibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.Theirinvolvementisalsowelcomed,sincepoliticalsupportfordevelopmentcooperationisdecreasingintheNetherlands.Developmentbudgetsarecutrigorously,newwaysoffundingareneededandsupportofthegeneralpublicisnecessary.Sportmayhelptoprovideamorerecognizableandvisibleimagetodevelopmentcooperation.Furthermore,governmentsarelookingforcooperationwithprivateorganizations,insocalled‘publicprivatepartnerships’.Cooperationwithsportsorganizationsfitsinwell,becausesports(withitsfamousrolemodels)opensdoorstobusinessesandotherpotentialpartners.

Atthesametime,sportsareimmenselypopularinmostdevelopingcountries,whichcontributestolocalinvolvement.Also,largesportingeventsincreasinglytakeplaceindevelopingcountriesandcities(thinkoftheFIFAWorldCupinSouthAfricaandBrazil,CommonwealthGamesinNewDelhiandtheOlympicGamesinBeijing,SochiandRiodeJaneiro).Inaddition,manysportsorganizations,suchasKNVB,FIFAandIOC,areawarethattheycannotlimittheirworktotheorganizationofsports,andrealizethattheymustshowbroadersocialcommitment,forexamplewithacorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)strategy.

Allthismeansthatgovernmentsaremoreopentointegratesportintotheirdevelopmentpoliciesandstrategies.ThiswasillustratedbytheEuropeanParliamentin2005,whodrewadirectlinebetweensportandtheMilleniumDevelopmentGoals,bydeclaring:‘(…)physicaleducationandsportsprojectsmayhelptoattaintheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,especiallywithregardtothemessuchashealth,education,socialmobilization,genderequality,environmentandpeaceamongpeople.’Nowadays,supportingsports‐baseddevelopmentprogramsandprojects,throughearmarkedbudgets,islegitimateindevelopmentpolicies.

1.2 ClaimsTheincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthe‘power’ofsportfordevelopment.Theseclaimsconcerndifferentsocialissuesandaffectdifferentlevelsinsociety(micro,mesoandmacro).TheSfDsectorusesdifferentconceptstoindicatewhatismeantbysportfordevelopment.Anoftenuseddefinitionis‘theuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution’(Sugden,1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;Lyras&WeltyPeachey,2011).

AccordingtotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG,2007),sportisseentohavethemostbenefitsin:

Theincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthe‘power’ofsportfordevelopment.

• Individualdevelopment• Healthpromotionanddiseaseprevention• Promotionofgenderequality• Socialintegrationandthedevelopmentofsocialcapital• Peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution• Post‐disaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife• Economicdevelopment• Communicationandsocialmobilization.

AselectionofclaimsbySfDactorscanbefoundinBox1.

Box1:Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment

SporthasbeenlinkedtotheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Inthepast,sporthasbeenmostcommonlylinkedto:eradicationofpovertyandextremehunger;achievinguniversalprimaryeducation;respondingtothepsychosocialneedsofvictimsofdisastersandemergencies;promotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomen;andcombatingHIV/AIDS,malariaandotherdiseases(www.sportanddev.org,2013).

Therelationshipbetweensportanddevelopment,however,isnotasobviousasitseemsatfirst.Besidesallpositiveoutcomesassociatedwithsport,likeimprovedfitnessandhealth,inclusionand

Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment

PlayisNOTaluxury;itisatoolforeducationandhealth.Itcanbringentirecommunitiestogetherandinspireeveryindividual.Agameoffootballcanteachchildrenabouttoleranceandpeace,andagameoftagcanteachaboutmalaria.Playhelpsteachimportantlifelessonsanddevelopskillslikecooperation,leadershipandteamwork.(RighttoPlayInternational,2013)

(…)footballismorethanasport.Footballdevelopsindividuals.Itincreaseslifequalityandencouragesparticipationwithinthecommunity.Fordisadvantagedareas,developingcountriesandtheyoungpeoplewhowouldotherwisestandonthesidelinesoflifelivingthere,footballisadevelopmenttool.(KNVB,2013)

Sportcanstrengthentheconfidenceandlifeskillsofyoungpeoplefromdisadvantagedbackgroundstodrivetheirownfuture,becomeactivecitizensandcommitthemselvestobuildinguptheircommunity.Theybecomeagentsofchange,andassuchbreaktheviciouscycleofpoverty,injustice,violenceandinequalitythathaskeptthemandtheirfamiliesatthemarginofsociety.(NSAInternational,2013)

Sportisbecauseofitspopularity,visibilityandsocialsignificanceacatalystforachievingspecificdevelopmentgoals.Sportinthiscontextisatoolforhealthpromotion,peace‐buildinginfragilestatesandconflictprevention,reconciliationandrehabilitationin(post)conflictcountries.(MinistriesofForeignAffairsandHealth,WelfareandSport(VWS),2008)

Byitsverynaturesportisaboutparticipation.Itisaboutinclusionandcitizenship.Sportbringsindividualsandcommunitiestogether,highlightingcommonalitiesandbridgingculturalorethnicdivides.Sportprovidesaforumtolearnskillssuchasdiscipline,confidenceandleadershipanditteachescoreprinciplessuchastolerance,co‐operationandrespect.Sportteachesthevalueofeffortandhowtomanagevictory,aswellasdefeat.Whenthesepositiveaspectsofsportareemphasized,sportbecomesapowerfulvehiclethroughwhichtheUnitedNationscanworktowardsachievingitsgoals.(UnitedNations,2005)

fairplay,thereissufficientevidenceofthe‘darkside’ofsport,suchasinjuries,exclusion,violence,hooliganismandfoulplay.Chapter3willanalyzetheclaimsofthepowerofsportfordevelopmentonthebasisofacademicliterature.

1.3 DefinitionsTheconceptof‘SportforDevelopment’seemsself‐evidentandindisputable:thereisalinkbetweensportontheonehandanddevelopmentontheother.However,oftenitisnotexplicitlydefinedwhatismeantbytheusedconceptsof‘sport’and‘development’.Forinstance,alongtermsportfordevelopmentprogramaimingtocontributetopeace‐buildingisverydifferentfromanonedaygrassrootssporteventthataimstobringjoy.Whenclaiminga(positive)causalrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopment,itiscrucialtooperationalizeandconceptualizethemainconcepts.

1.3.1 Sport

Manybookshavebeenwrittenonwhatisexactlyunderstoodassport,tryingtoformulateananswertoquestionssuchas:Doweonlytalkaboutorganizedsportsordowealsocoverleisureactivities?Isplayingchessasportanddoweincludeindigenousgames?‘Sport’isrelativefromculturetoculture,accordingtoEichberg(1984):“Itoscillatesbetweengame,dance,competition,fight,gymnastics,festivities,ritual,carnival,theatre,health‐techniques,magic,eroticpresentationandotherformsofphysicalculture.”EliasandDunning(1970)argue:“Sportactivitiesandgames,particularlyintheirtraditionalnationalforms,reflectculturalconfigurationsandstablepatterns.”

IntheareaofSport&Development,‘sport’isgenerallyunderstoodtoincludephysicalactivitiesthatgobeyondcompetitivesports(www.sportanddev.org,2013).TheUnitedNationsInter‐agencyTaskforceonSportforDevelopmentandPeace(2012)states:“Incorporatedintothedefinitionof‘sport’areallformsofphysicalactivitythatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwell‐beingandsocialinteraction.Theseinclude:play;recreation;organized,casualorcompetitivesport;andindigenoussportsorgames.”UNICEF(2004)expandsthisdefinition:“Sportinvolvesrulesorcustomsandsometimescompetition.Play–especiallyamongchildren–isanyphysicalactivitythatisfunandparticipatory.Itisoftenunstructuredandfreefromadultdirection.Recreationismoreorganizedthanplay,andgenerallyentailsphysicallyactiveleisureactivities.Play,recreationandsportareallfreelychosenactivitiesundertakenforpleasure.”

Thisconceptualizationofsportsisverycomprehensivebyincorporatingallformsofsport,physicalactivityandexercisethatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwell‐beingandsocialinteraction.Sincesportmanifestsitselfinmanydifferentformswithinsportfordevelopmentprograms,reachingaverydiversetargetpopulation,sportcannotbelimitedtoformalorganizedactivities.Whereasfootballisoftenbeingusedtoattractat‐riskyouthincommunities,traditionalsportsandindigenousgamesareregularlybeingusedtopromoteunityandculturalheritageortotargethard‐to‐reachpopulationswhicharenotattractedbypopularsports.Differentformsofphysicalactivityareusedfordifferentobjectives.

Furthermore,theambiguousandsometimesparadoxicalnatureofsportshouldnotbeneglected.Itisimportanttoseesportasasocialconstructionwhichismalleableaccordingtothesocialforce(Sugden,2010).Sporthasbothpositiveandnegativeaspects,itdoesnothaveoneface.Moreover,itisimportanttonotethatsportsandelementsofsportsarebeingdiscussedatdifferentlevelsandfromdifferentperspectives(Allison,1986).

1.3.2 Development

Theconceptof‘development’isnoteasytodemarcate;agenerallyappealingterm,howeverdeeplycomplicatedandmultidimensional.‘Development’meansmanythingstomanypeople(see,forexample,Escobar,1995;Cooper&Packard,1997;Crewe&Harrison,1998;Black,2010).Thelevelofdevelopmentofanationwasinitiallyconsideredonlyineconomictermsandconcernedtheextenttowhichitseconomydependedontheagricultural,industrialand/orservicesectors(thelatterbeingconsideredthemost‘developed’).Thelevelofdevelopmentwasmeasuredintermsofthegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)orgrossnationalproduct(GNP)(SDPIWG,2007).But,developmentisnotonlyaneconomicissue,asithaspolitical,socialandculturalimplicationsaswell(Schulpen,2001).Often,adistinctionismadebetweensocialandhumandevelopment.

Socialdevelopmentisabroadtermthatdescribesactionsthataretakentobuildpositiveoutcomesandpreventnegativesocialoutcomesthatcanadverselyaffectacommunity. Theaimofsocialdevelopmentistoimprovetheavailabilityofsupportsystemsinthecommunity,whichpreventnegativeoutcomesbeforetheyoccurorbuffer(lessen)theirimpact.Therefore,socialdevelopmentfocusesonthesocialorganizationthatenablestoachievethegoalsofsociety.

Humandevelopmentfocusesonindividualstodeveloptheircapacitytoachievethegoalstheyaspirefor.Humandevelopment,accordingtotheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP,2006),maybedefinedasaprocessofenlargingpeople’schoices.UNDParguesthatatalllevelsofdevelopment,thethreeessentialchoicesforpeoplearetolivealongandhealthylife,toacquirebetterknowledgeandtohaveaccesstoresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.TheUNDPusestheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)tomeasureimprovementsinthequalityoflifeofhumans,basedonanindexwiththreecriteria:

• Alongandhealthylife,asmeasuredbylifeexpectancyatbirth;• Knowledge,asmeasuredbytheadultliteracyrate(2/3weight),andthecombinedgross

enrolmentratioinprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducation(1/3weight);• Adecentstandardofliving,asmeasuredbytheGDPpercapitainpurchasingpowerparity

(PPP)terms(measuredinUS$)(HumanDevelopmentReport,2006,p.394).Ingeneral,developmentisconcernedwithincreasinghealthandlongevity;improvingknowledgeandeducation;ensuringanadequatestandardofliving(UNDP,2006);andprovidingavenuesforhumanrights,justiceandcitizenshipforthosewhohavebeenexcludedanddisenfranchisedfrompubliclife(Small,2002).

Mwaanga(2013)warnsthatthesedevelopmentconceptsaretheoutcomesofahegemonicNortherndevelopmentparadigm,indicativeofthehegemonicpositionofNortherncountriesintheSfDmovement.Hearguesthat‘modernization’istheonedominantdevelopmenttheory:‘Suchdevelopmentthinkingimpliesabinaryunderstandingoftheworld,distinguishingbetweentheless

desired(developing,traditional)andthemoredesired(modern,civilized)society.’AccordingtoMwaanga,thisviewondevelopmentcompelsNotherncountriestoproactively‘assist’thepoorcountriesintheirattempttobecomemodern.HeproposesalternativedevelopmentdiscoursesforSfD,suchaspostcolonialtheoryandtheUbuntuphilosophy,inwhichthenotionofagoalfordevelopmentcanbereachedonlythroughatrulydemocraticallyimbuedprocess,wherebythoseatthereceivingendnegotiatetheirowninitiatives.

Itisimportanttonotethat,underallpresenteddefinitionsorconcepts,nocountryeverachievesafinalstateofbeing‘developed’–astheUNDeclarationnotes,developmentisaprocessof“constantimprovement.”However,keyquestionsremain:“whodeterminestheformofdevelopmentinacountry?”and“whataretheappropriaterolesforforeignersinthedevelopmentofanothercountry?”(SDPIWG,2007).

1.3.3 Sport(for)development

Theconceptualizationofsportfordevelopmentnotonlyfacesdifficultiesinacademiccircles,inpracticetheuseofunambiguousconceptsremainsachallengeaswell.Thetermssportfordevelopment,developmentthroughsport,sport‐in‐development,sportanddevelopment,sport‐for‐changeandsportsdevelopmentareusedinterchangeablytorefertoprogramsandprojects.

Variousclassificationsarebeingusedinliteratureandinthefieldtoclarifythespecificnatureofdifferentsportprogramsandinordertoclarifythedifferencebetween‘sportdevelopment’and‘developmentthroughsport’.

Kidd(2008)suggeststhreebroad,overlapping,approaches:firstly,traditionalsportsdevelopmentinwhichtheprovisionofbasicsportscoaching,equipmentandinfrastructurearethecentralconcern.ThisisforinstancehowtheKNVBinitiallystarteditssportprogramsindevelopingcountries.Later,theytookawiderapproach,andstartedaddressingsocialissuesinthetrainingofcoaches.Secondly,humanitarianassistanceinwhichfund‐raisinginsportisusedtoprovideformsofaidassistance,frequentlyforrefugees.SomeoftheRightToPlayprojectsfallintothiscategory.Thethirdcategoryistherathergrandioselynamed‘sport‐for‐development‐and‐peacemovement’,whichcoversawidevarietyoforganizationsandloosecoalitions.Theseorganizationsandcoalitionsfocusonbroadsocialdevelopment,suchasNSAInternationalandKickingAIDSOut.

Levermore(2008)proposesanotherclassificationbasedonamoredisaggregatedapproachtothedesiredoutcomesofsport‐for‐developmentorganizations:conflictresolutionandinter‐culturalunderstanding;buildingphysical,socialandcommunityinfrastructure;raisingawareness,particularlythrougheducation;empowerment;directimpactonphysicalandpsychologicalhealthandgeneralwelfare;economicdevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.

Themostusedanduser‐friendlyclassificationisthedistinctionbetween‘sportplus’and‘plussport’approach(MinistriesofForeignAffairsandVWS,1998;Coalter,2007).‘Sportplus’means:programsandprojectswithafocusonthedeliveryofsport,whichmay(also)resultindevelopmentoutcomes.‘Plussport’

Both‘sportdevelopment’and‘sportfordevelopment’areaimedatmakinglifemoremeaningfulthroughinteractionwithoneother.

takesacertainsocialordevelopmentissueasstartingpointandusessportasatooltoaddressthatissue.Thisclassificationisratheracontinuumonwhichprogramscanbeplacedthanastrictclassification.

Engelhardt(2013)arguesthattheoverarchingaimof‘sportdevelopment’/’sportplus’or‘sportfordevelopment’/‘plussport’mayseemverydifferent,butthatisnottosaythattheycannotworktogetherwithmutualbenefits.Shestates:“Both‘sportdevelopment’and‘sportfordevelopment’focusondeliveringqualityinterventionsandactive,plannedparticipationontheground.Wewouldperhapsdowelltoviewthembothasvariationsofthesameidea,interventionsinsocietyaimedtowardsthemosthumanofgoals:makinglifemoremeaningfulthroughinteractionwithoneother”(www.sportanddev.org,2013).

2Policies,programsandapproachesThischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductiontothefieldofsportfordevelopmentonanationalandinternationallevel.Itdescribeshowsportfordevelopmenthasbeenintegratedininternationalandnationalpolicies.TheNetherlandsandtheyear1998,whenthefirstDutchformalpolicyhasbeenformulated(SportinDevelopment:TeamworkScores!),willserveaspointofreference.ThechapteranalyzeswhatcanbesaidabouttheroleandapproachoftheNetherlandsintheinternationalfieldofsportfordevelopment.

2.1 PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands

1980‐1998ThehistoricalrelationshipbetweentheNetherlandsandSouthAfricaplaysanimportantroleintheemergeofsportfordevelopmentpolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands.Duringthe1980s,thesportboycottagainsttheApartheidsysteminSouthAfricawasthefirstpoliticalinvolvementoftheNetherlandsinsportindevelopingcountries.Afterthefirstnon‐racialelectionsin1994,DutchsportorganizationsopenedtalkswiththeirSouthAfricancolleagues,variousNGOsstarteddevelopmentprogramsinthepost‐ApartheidcountryandtheDutchgovernmentwaswillingtoinvestinthebuild‐upofthenewSouthAfrica.Varioussportfordevelopmentinitiativesemerged,suchasthecooperationbetweenSCORE,aSouthAfricansportbasedNGO,andtheNetherlandsOlympicCommittee/NetherlandsSportsFederation(NOC*NSF)andbetweentheSouthAfricanFootballAssociation(SAFA)andtheNetherlandsRoyalFootballAssociation(KNVB).

Variousotherprivateinitiativesemergedinresponsetorequestsfromlocalgovernments,sportingorganizationsandindividualsfromthesouth‐notonlyinSouthAfrica.Forexample,thesportleadersprogramoftheNetherlandsCatholicSportsFederation(NKS,oneofthepredecessorsofNSAInternational)inBurkinaFaso,andvolleyballprogramsrelatedtodealingwithtraumainRwanda.Sportorganizationsandpassionateindividualswerepioneeringonvariousfronts.Subsequently,thesepioneersincreasinglyturnedtothegovernmentforsubsidiesfortheirprojects.

Atthetime,sportfordevelopmentfundingbytheDutchgovernmentwasmerelyincidental.ThefirsttimefundingfromtheDutchgovernmentwasusedforsportfordevelopmentwasaftertheplanecrashinwhichtheZambiannationalfootballteamperishedin1993.Thethen‐ministerofDevelopmentCooperation,JanPronk,madefundsavailabletorebuildtheZambianfootballteam,whichhadlostalmostallitsplayersintherun‐uptothe1994WorldCupintheUSA.Theministeracknowledgedthatgoodperformancebythenationalteamwasimportanttoadevelopingnation.Dutchparliamentcalledtheministertoaccountforthisinitiative.

Varioussportfordevelopmentinitiativesemergedinpost‐ApartheidSouthAfricaandtheDutchgovernmentwaswillingtoinvestinthebuild‐upofthenewSouthAfrica.

ThenewpoliticalsituationinSouthAfrica,thevariousprivateinitiativesandchangesinpolicy(duetheearliermentionedparadigmshift–seeChapter1),gavewaytoamorestructuredapproach(andbudgets)bytheDutchgovernment.In1998,theMinistryofSportandtheMinistryofForeignAffairsdevelopedacombinedmemorandumwhichexplicitlylinkedsportastoolfordevelopmenttointernationaldevelopmentcooperation(entitled“TeamworkScores!”[Samenspelscoort],1998).ThememorandummotivatedandbroughttogetherDutchorganizationsandannouncedstructuralplanstoencourageandsupportsportindevelopingcountries.Itsofficialgoalwasformulatedasfollows:“Topromotethebestpossibleuseofphysicaleducation,sport,games,andactivitiesinvolvingphysicalexerciseindevelopingcountrieswiththeaimofincreasingbothindividualhealthandwell‐beingandsocialcohesionanddevelopment.”Oneofthegoalswastointegratesportandphysicalexercisewithotherdevelopmentactivities,suchasruraldevelopmentprojectsandprogramsforstreetchildren,therebyencouragingtheintegrationofsportinawiderangeofsectors,whichwastotallynewatthattime.

1998‐2008TypicalfortheDutchorganizationofsportfordevelopmentistheinvolvementoftwodifferentministries,whichrequiresthoughtfulcoordinationandmanagementoftasksandresponsibilities.Thememorandumfrom1998appointedtheMinistryofForeignAffairsasresponsibleforallNGOsandmultilateralagenciesworkingindevelopmentcooperation,whiletheMinistryofSporthadtheresponsibilityforliaisingwiththeInternationalOlympic

Committee(IOC),sport‐basedNGOs,localsportassociations,andothersport‐orientedorganizations.

TheSfDmemorandumgavetheMinistryofSporttheabilitytosignMemorandaofUnderstanding(MoU)withvariouscountries.TheseMoU’sweredesignedtoexchangesportknowledgebetweencountries.TheKNVBbecameanimportantpartnerfortheMinistryofSportinimplementingtheMoU’s.DutchfootballcoachesrancoursesinZambia,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,BurkinaFasoandSurinam.Also,NKSgainedtheopportunitytosustaintheirprograminBurkinaFasoandstartoffinSurinam.

Moreover,thegovernmentsubsidizedaSportandDevelopmentprogram,runbytheNationalCommitteeforInternationalCooperationandSustainableDevelopment(NCDO),anindependentadministrativebody.Thisorganizationsetupaplatformforsportanddevelopmentorganizationstoregularlymeetandexchangeinformation.NCDOalsodevelopedawebsite(www.sportdevelopment.org)makingrelevantinformationaboutprojects,organizations,funding,andsoonaccessible.Inaddition,NCDOpublished“Supporter”,aquarterlyaboutsportindevelopingcountries,whichensuredthattheissuewasbroughttotheattentionoftheDutchpublic.

Althoughthebudgetforprojectsindevelopingcountriesremainedlimited,thenewpolicydocument,theMoU’sandtheNCDOSportandDevelopmentprogramsparkedanumberofnewlarge‐scaleprojects.SomeDutchsportorganizations,amongwhichKNVBandNSA,formally

Thenewpolicydocument,theMoU’sandtheNCDOSportandDevelopmentprogramsparkedoffanumberofnewlarge‐scaleprojects.

incorporatedsportanddevelopmentintotheirmissionandevenappointedaspecializedemployee.Itprovedhardertoinvolvethetraditionaldevelopmentcooperationsector.Incidentally,NGOssuchasTerredesHommes,Cordaid,IKVPaxChristiandOxfamNovibcooperatedinsportfordevelopmentprojects,butitwasnotsystematicallyincludedintheirprogramsandstrategies.

Thepolicymemorandumof1998wasfollowedbyajointpositionstatementfromtheMinistryofForeignAffairsandtheMinistryofSportin2000.WhiletheMinistryofSport’sresponsibilitiesremainedthesame,theMinistryofForeignAffairsadoptedalarge‐sectorapproach.Developmentcooperationpolicyshiftedfromtheuncoordinatedsupportontheprojectlevelinalargeamountofcountriestoafocusonsupportatprogramlevelinasmalleramountofcountries.Smallersectorslikesport,youth,andinclusionofpeoplewithdisabilitieswereintegratedintoabroader,overarchingpolicyfocus,suchashealth,educationandruraldevelopment,aswellasgoodgovernance.Furthermore,theDutchembassieswereassignedadifferentrole,astheynolongerreceiveddirectsupportforsportfordevelopmentprojects.

ThispolicyshiftmadeitdifficultforsmallerNGOstoobtainfundsforsportfordevelopmentprojects.Atthesametime,globaloperatingsportfordevelopmentorganizationssuchasRightToPlayfitinwellinthenewpolicy.TheDutchForeignAffairsministrywassoimpressedbytheRighttoPlayprojects,particularlythosefocussingonhealthpromotionandrefugees,that,in2002,itannouncedtosupportRightToPlaytoconductalargemultilateralprogram.RighttoPlayNetherlandsbecameamemberoftheInnovationPlatformDevelopmentCooperationandin2008;itwasassignedagrantof1.2millionEuroforprogramsinSudanandBurundi.

Manysportfordevelopmentprogramschangedsubstantivelyinthisperiod.From2004,itwasmadepossibleforDutchsportsorganizationstojoinPSO,amemberorganizationwithalargebodyofknowledgeinthefieldofdevelopmentcooperation.ThePSOmembershipofNOC*NSFwasaturningpointthatmadevarioussportfordevelopmentorganizationsthinkdifferentlyabouttheirapproach.ItstimulatedNKS(later:NSAInternational),forinstance,tofocusoncapacitybuilding.IntheNKSprogramshumanresource,organizationalandinstitutionaldevelopmentbecamekey.Moreover,newfundingpossibilitiesforDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizationsarosethroughPSO.

2008‐2013On11February2008,thethenDutchMinisterforDevelopmentCooperationBertKoendersandtheStateSecretaryforHealth,WelfareandSportMariëtteBussemakerpresentedthepolicymemorandumentitledThepowerofsportindevelopmentcooperation.Anopengoal[Eenkansvooropendoel.Dekrachtvansportinontwikkelingssamenwerking].ThispolicymemorandumhadtheintentiontostimulateDutchinvolvementandcommitmentinthefieldofsportanddevelopmentcooperation.

Thevisionbehindthismemorandumwastoenabledevelopmentcooperationbodiesandorganizationstomakeoptimalandsustainableuseofthepowerofsportandplayprograms.Furthermorethestartingpointwasafocusoncooperationinwhichsportcanmakeacontributiontodevelopmentgoals.Therefore,thepolicywasbuiltaroundthefollowingthreeelements:

• CommitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbyDutchorganizations(alsoknownas‘Sportscoalitionsinaction’,viaNOC*NSF);

• Commitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbylocalorganizations(viaEmbassies);

• CommitmenttoreinforcingthesupportfortheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationintheNetherlands(viaNCDO).

Theprogramaimedtoimprovethepositionofyoungpeople,girlsandwomen,andthedisabledin10selectedcountries(partially)throughtheapplicationofDutchsportsknow‐how.TheselectedcountrieswereSouthAfrica,Suriname,Kenya,BurkinaFaso,Zambia,Mozambique,Senegal,Bhutan,IndonesiaandGuatemala.Asidefromthesecountries,specialprojectsweresetupinthreefragilestates:Burundi,SudanandthePalestinianTerritories.Theprogramfocusedspecificallyonthethemesofhealth,educationandemancipation/participationandwasimplementedbyso‐calledmaincontractors:NSA,KNVB,Todos,RespoandBhutanandPartners.TheycooperatedwithRightToPlay,WomenWinandvariouslocalorganizations,mainlycommunitybased.TheexplicitroleofDutchembassiesinthismemorandumwasnew.Intheyearsbefore,embassieswereincidentallyinvolvedinsportfordevelopmentprograms,forexampleinZambiaandSouthAfrica.Theirinvolvementheavilydependedonpersonalinterestbyembassystaffmembers.Now,withthenewmemorandum,embassiesin10countrieshadtointegratesportfordevelopmentintheiractivitiesandprograms.

Thebudgetmadeavailablefortheperiodbetween2008and2011was16millionEuro.ThismoneywaspartlyallocatedtofundthecommitmentbyDutchsportand/ordevelopmentorganizations.AnevaluationbyNCDO(2011)providedinsightinthequantitativeandqualitativeresultsoftheprogram.Themostimportantsuccesseswereformulatedas‘newnetworkrelations’and‘collaborationswithdomainsoutsidesport’.Forexample,NSAcreatedalargenetworkofgrassrootscommunitybasedorganizationsinKenya,whereitrunsprogramsfocusedonpeace,security,educationandlivelihood.Also,‘knowledgeexchange’throughjointtrainingprogramsandcooperationwithuniversitieswasmentionedasayieldoftheprogram.Theevaluationalsoprovidedvariousrecommendations,suchas‘morefocusonknowledgeexchangethroughthere‐useofproductsandexchangeofbestpractices’and‘provideframeworks(suchasguidanceindicators)formonitoringandevaluation’.

The2010FIFAWorldCupinSouthAfricaprovidedaboosttosportfordevelopmentactivities.InthecontextofthisWorldCup,theKNVBre‐namedtheirglobalcoachthecoachesprograminto‘WorldCoaches’andre‐positionedtheirprogramwiththeexplicitintegrationoflifeskillsinfootballcourses.TheWorldCoachesprogrambecamelessdependentongovernmentsubsidiesthankstotheinterestandinvolvementofprivateorganizations,suchasNike.Also,theWorldCoachesprogramofferedvariousopportunitiesforpublic‐private‐partnerships(so‐calledPPPs),whichwasacknowledgedbythewater,sanitationandhygiene(WASH)sector.In2011,aPPPbetweenKNVB,theWASHsectorandtheMinistryofForeignAffairsemerged,resultinginaFootballforWaterprograminGhana,KenyaandMozambique.

Themostimportantsuccesseswereformulatedas‘newnetworkrelations’and‘collaborationswithdomainsoutsidesport’.

Becausethe2008policymemorandumonsportfordevelopmentexpiredin2011,anewprogramwasdevelopedin2012.Thistime,theprogramwascomposedsolelybytheMinistryofForeignAffairs.TheMinistryofSporthassportfordevelopmentnotformallyinitsportfoliosanymore,sinceitsfocusismoreondomesticissuesnow.Withinthenewlyinitiatedprogram‘SportforDevelopment2012‐2015’themainthemesaresustainabledevelopmentandpeace.Disadvantagedgroups–youth,children,women,girlsanddisabledpeople‐againhaveacentralpositionwithintheprogram.

Furthermore,theprogramislessfocusedonraisingpublicsupportandknowledgesharingthanbeforeandhasshiftedtothesupportofsportnetworksforsocialentrepreneurship.Whereasintheperiod2008‐2011abudgetof16millionEurowasavailable,forthisprogramabudgetof6millionisallocated,duetooverallbudgetcutswithindevelopmentcooperation.Thenumberoftargetcountriesalsowentdownfrom10to8.Atthesametimenewtargetcountrieshavebeenappointedaspartofthose8selectedcountries.NSAInternational,KNVBandRighttoPlayaretheimplementersoftheprogram.

Paradigm DutchSfDpolicy

1980sSportasprivatedomain;traditionaldevelopmentcooperation

Nopolicy

1990sSportasasourceofinspirationforsociety;moreemphasisonsocialdevelopment

FirstformalpolicyonSfD:‘SportinDevelopment:TeamworkScores!’(MinistryofSportandMinistryofForeignAffairs,1998)

2000s

Sportasaneffectivetoolfordevelopment;emergeof4thpillarindevelopmentcooperation

NewcountryprogramSfD:‘Anopengoal.Thepowerofsportindevelopmentcooperation’(MinistryofSportandMinistryofForeignAffairs,2008)

2010sSportasacontributortodevelopmentandsocialentrepeneurship

Program:‘SportforDevelopment2012‐2015’(MinistryofForeignAffairs,2012)

Table1:SportfordevelopmentinpolicyintheNetherlands

2.2 Internationalpolicyandprograms

Briefhistory‘SportforAll’wasthenameofprobablythefirstsportfordevelopmentprogramandwasimplementedinTanzaniabytheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)in1983.InNorway,athleteinvolvementplayedalargeroleintheemergenceofsportasadevelopmentinstrumentandstill,nationalsportrolemodelshavealargeinfluenceonthepublicopinionofsportfordevelopment.RightToPlay(formerly:OlympicAid),headedbyerstwhileNorwegianOlympicspeedskatingchampionJohannOlavKoss,becamethelargestinternationalNGOforsportanddevelopmentandusespopulareliteathletesastheirambassadors.

AnothersportfordevelopmentearlyadaptorisCanada.FormalinvolvementoftheCanadiangovernmentwasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsofGovernment(CHOM)meeting.Since2000,CanadaisaccommodatingtheheadquartersofRightToPlayinToronto.Intheearly2000s,theNetherlandstogetherwithNorwayandCanadawereabletocallthemselvesthefrontrunnersofthe‘movement’,withRightToPlayasastronglobbyistforthesportanddevelopmentissueinternationally.

NorwayTheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)wasabletoimplementasportsdevelopmentaidprojectbecauseofthechangesinNorwegiandevelopmentaidstrategiesinthe1990s.Thesechangesmadefundsavailableforprivateorganizations.Inordertobefunded,certaindemandswereproposedbyNORAD,whichwasNorway’spublicimplementingaidagencyatthetime.Overtheyearspublicsupportforsporthasbeenanimportantfactoraswell.Manygovernmentsindicatedthatindividualchampions,likeJohannOlavKoss,wereinvaluableinmobilizinggovernmentsupportforsportfordevelopmentandpeacebydemonstratingthepowerofsportinhighlypersonalandcompellingways(Straume&Steen‐Johnsen,2012).CanadaFormalinvolvementofthegovernmentinCanadawasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsofGovernment(CHOM)meetingandsincethenCanadahasbeenwellknownwithinthesportfordevelopmentsector(Hayhurst&Frisby,2010).Internationally,CanadaplaysaninfluentialrolebystructuralcooperationwithmultilateralpartnersastheforumofCommonwealthSportsMinistersConference,theCommonwealthAdvisoryBodyonSport,theConferenceoftheYouthandSportsMinistersofFrench‐speakingCountries(CONFEJES)andtheUnitedNationsGroupofFriendsforSportforDevelopmentandPeace.Box2:policydevelopmentinNorwayandCanada

DuringtheOlympicWinterGamesinSaltLakeCity(2002),RightToPlayorganizedaroundtableconferenceonSfD.TheSaltLakeCityconferenceresultedinthefoundingofaspecialtaskforceonSportsforPeaceandDevelopmentandtheappointmentofmr.AdolfOgiasthespecialUNambassadorin2003.ThetaskforceevolvedintotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG)whoaimedatachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).RightToPlayservedasSecretariattoSDPIWGfrom2004to2008.TheSDPIWGwasahigh‐levelpolicyinitiativemobilizing59nationalgovernmentsandkeystakeholdersfromUNagenciesandcivilsociety.ThefocusonusingsportfortheachievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalshasbeenpresentintheapproachoftheUNsincethe2003UNTaskForceReportSportforDevelopmentandPeace:TowardsAttainingtheMisllenniumDevelopmentGoals.Subsequently,manygovernmentsrefertotheMDGswhenstatingtousesportastoolfordevelopment.

In2003,theUNsetuptheOfficeofSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP)inordertofurthercontributeinamoresystematicandcoherentwaytothepromotionofsportasacost‐effectivedevelopmenttool.Sincethen,theUNMemberStates,gatheredintheGeneralAssembly,haverepeatedlydemonstratedcommitmentandsupporttotheuseofsportasavehicleforhumandevelopmentandpeace‐buildingbyadoptingaseriesofresolutions.

SportandUnitedNationsAsearlyas1922,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)andtheUnitedNationsInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)alreadyestablishedinstitutionalcooperation,resultinglateroninpartnershipswithotherUnitedNationsagenciesandprograms.Furthermore,therightofaccesstoandparticipationinsportandplayhaslongbeenrecognizedinanumberofinternationalconventions.In1978,UNESCOdescribedsportandphysicaleducationasa“fundamentalrightforall”.However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirectedatachievingdevelopmentgoalstendedtobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2001,formerUNSecretary‐GeneralKofiAnnannominatedAdolfOgiashisSpecialAdviseronSportforDevelopmentandPeace,whowassucceededinApril2008byWilfriedLemke.

Box3:SportandUnitedNations

Theincreasedinterestfromdonorcountries,suchasAustralia,theUK,SwitzerlandandGermanyandtheEU,stimulatedariseinrequestsfromthedevelopingcountries,especiallyfromAfrica,andatthesametimetheserequestsfromtheSouthcouldbemoreadequatelytargetedbyspecific

organizations.UKSportandCommonwealthCanadaorganizedadonorconferenceinLondonandarecipientconferenceinJohannesburg.ThemainissueofdebateattheseconferenceswascooperationbetweenNorthandSouth.Here,thefirststepsweretakentoformulateacodeofconductforcooperationbetweenNorthernandSouthernorganizations.SCORE,aSouthAfricanNGO,wasthecoordinatingorganizationforrecipientcountriesinandplayedinimportroleintheformulationofthecodeofconduct.

AtthefirstMagglingenconferenceinFebruary2003,manyinternationalorganizationsandgovernmentssignedtheMagglingendeclaration,expressingtheircommitmenttosportanddevelopment.Justlikeits2005edition,thisconferencewasorganizedbytheAdvisortotheUNSecretaryGeneralonSportforDevelopmentandPeace,theSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation(SAD)andFederalOfficeofSportMagglingen(BASPO).InNovember2003,theNetherlands–specificallyNCDO,theMinistryofHealth,WelfareandSport(VWS)andNOC*NSF–organizedaninternationalmeetingofexperts,entitled‘TheNextStep’.Here,practitionersfromboththeNorthandtheSouthgatheredforthefirsttimetodebatethevalueofsportandtodecidewhatstepstotake.TheNextStepConferenceinAmsterdamwasfollowedbyeditionsinZambia(2003),Namibia(2007)andTrinidad&Tobago(2011).Afterthoseconferences,newnetworkorganizationsarose,suchasKickingAIDSout.

However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirectedatachievingdevelopmentgoalstendedtobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2005,whichwasdeclaredbytheUNastheYearofSportandPhysicalEducation(IYSPE),thishasbeenrecognizedbystating:“Whatwasmissing,wasasystematicapproachtoanimportantsectorincivilsociety:sport”(UN,2005).Consequently,“theUnitedNationsisturningtotheworldofsportforhelpintheworkforpeaceandtheefforttoachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals”.

TheIYSPEwasforvariousgovernments,bothintheNorthandtheSouth,thestartingpointforallocatingbudgettosportfordevelopmentprograms.Internationalumbrellasportorganizations,suchastheIOCandFIFA,cametorealizethatsportscouldcontributesignificantlytodevelopment,andasaresulttheyformulatedtheirownpolicies,strategiesandprograms,suchasFootballforHope.Also,theinterestofdevelopingcountriesinorganizingmegaevents,suchastheOlympicGamesandthefootballWorldCup,andaccompanyingpressureofpublicopinionnottoorganizesuchexpensiveeventsattheexpenseofthepoor,forcedIOCandFIFAtopursueasociallegacythroughtheorganizationofsuchevents.In2008,IOCandtheUNagreedonanexpandedframeworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsoftheUN.

In2013,thesportanddev.orgplatformcelebratesits10thanniversary.Theplatformisahubforsharingknowledge,buildinggoodpractice,facilitatingcoordinationandfosteringpartnershipsbetweenandwithindifferentstakeholdersinsportanddevelopment.TheInternationalPlatformonSport&Developmentiscurrentlysupportedbyadiversityoforganizations,fromtheprivatesector(Nike),thesportssector(InternationalSportandCultureAssociation;UEFA),multigovernmental(theCommonwealthsecretariat),charity(LaureusFoundation),toorganizationsofnationalrepresentation(AustralianSportsCommission,NorwegianOlympicCommittee,UKSport).In2012,

Whatwasmissing,wasasystematicapproachtoanimportantsectorincivilsociety:sport

2013 3rdUN‐IOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2012 ExpertsMeetingattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelopguidelinesonSportforDevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

UNICEFRoundtableonchildprotectioninsport

2011 4thconference'TheNextStep',heldinTrinidad&Tobago.

2ndUN‐IOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2010 2010FIFAWorldCup

2009 FirstUN‐IOCForumonSportforDevelopmentandPeaceheldinLausanne

Onlinee‐debatewithSfDexperts,convenedbysportanddev.organdNCDO

2008 UNSecretary‐GeneralBanKi‐MoonestablishesatrustfundonSportforDevelopmentand Peace.

Mr.W.LemkeappointedasthenewSpecialAdviseronSportforDevelopmentandPeace

IOCandtheUNagreeonanexpandedframeworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsoftheUN.

2007 EuropeanCommissionpublishesaWhitePaperonSportstatingitwillpromotetheuseofsportasatoolfordevelopmentininternationaldevelopmentpolicy.

3rdconference‘TheNextStep’,Windhoek,Namibia

2005 Magglingen2005Declaration

EuropeanParliamentResolutiononSportandDevelopment

2ndconference‘TheNextStep’,Livingstone,Zambia

UNICEFWorkshoponMonitoringandEvaluation,NewYork,USA

2004 CouncilofEurope:TheContributionofSporttoInterculturalDialogue,Istanbul,Turkey

RoundtableForum:HarnessingthePowerofSportforDevelopmentandPeace,Athens,Greece

2003 UNResolution58/5

TheNextStep:'InternationalExpertMeetingonDevelopmentInandThroughSport',Amsterdam,TheNetherlands

EstablishmentofSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDP‐IWG)

EstablishmentofInternationalplatformwww.sportanddev.org

InternationalDonorMeeting,London,UK

InternationalRecipientMeeting,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

UNTaskForceReport

Appointmentofmr.A.OgiasUNSpecialAdvisoronSportforDevelopmentandPeace

DeclarationandRecommendations:MagglingenConferenceonSport&Development,Magglingen,Switzerland

2002 RoundTableConference‐SaltLakeCity,USA

sportanddev.orgorganizedanexpertmeetingheldattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelopguidelinesonSportforDevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

Box4:SelectionofInternationalandNationalMilestones

ArenaOvertheyears,aSfDsectoremerged.Thesectorischaracterizedbyitsbroadengagementofactingplayers;governmentalandnongovernmental,sportandnon‐sport.AlsoprivateorganizationsgetinvolvedinSfD.Sportrelatedbusinesses,likeNikeandAdidas,choosecooperationwithorganizations,projectsorprogramsthatmatchwiththeirmarketingorcorporatesocialresponsibly(CSR)strategy.Thesameappliesforsoftdrinkmanufacturers,telecomsuppliersandhealthinsurancecompanies,whoshareaninterestinimagebuildingandawarenessindevelopingcountries.EventheEnglishPremierLeagueclubsexpandtheirsocialactivitiesfromdeprivedareasintheirownhometowntolessprivilegedcountriesintheSouth.

TheSfDsectorcanbecharacterizedasanarena(VanEekeren,2006).Thisarenaisformedbydiverseactors:targetgroups(intheSouth),recipients(governments,NGOsandcommunitybasedorganizationsintheSouth),intermediaryorganizations(SfDorganizationsandtheirimplementingpartners)anddonors(governments,UN,EU,sponsors).Thearenagetsmoreandmorecomplicatedbecauseoftheincreasingnumberofactors,agreatvarietyofrolesandformsofcooperation,andconflictinginterest.Furthermore,theactionsbytheactorsareinfluencedby‘softandintangiblepowers’,suchas(international)politics,publicopinion,lobby,relationshipsandaccessofinformation.

2.3 DutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspectiveAnno2013,theNetherlandsisnolongeroneof‘thefrontrunnersoftheSfDmovement’–asitusedtobeintheearly2000s.Thisisduetonationalpolicychanges(infinances,contentandcapacity)andthemassiveexpansionofSfDinothercountries.However,thisdoesnotmeanthattheNetherlandsplaysaninsignificantrole.

2.3.1 Donorcountrypolicies

Notinalldonorcountriesaself‐standingpolicyonthisthematicareaexist.TheUnitedKingdomforinstance,asignificantactorinthesector,hasnooverarchingorself‐standingpolicy.IntheUK,sportfordevelopmentisintegratedinaless‐structuredwayintotheirinternationaldevelopmentandinternationalsportefforts.Departmentswithinthegovernmentareworkingtogetherinformally.Canadaalsolacksanoverarchingpolicyonitsinternationalapproachtosportfordevelopment.Itsinvolvementischaracterizedbytheengagementofdifferentdepartmentsandagencies.SporthasbeenlinkedatvariouspointsintimetoCanada’sforeignpolicy,internationaldevelopmentandinternationalsportpolicyobjectives.

Anothersignificantactor,Switzerland,hastakenamainstreamingapproachsince2007byembeddingsportasadevelopmentthemewithintheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperationonparwithotherdevelopmentthemes(suchaseducation,health,water,sanitation,etc.).Thismeanssporthastocompeteforfundingwithothermethodsandinstrumentsandtherecognitionofsportasvaluabletoolbecameincreasinglyimportant.Before,sportfordevelopmentusedtobeafreestandingprogramwithitsownbudget.

NorwayandAustraliaseemtohavethemostcentralizedanduniformedapproach.Norwegiangovernmentformulatesoneofitsmainlessonslearnedovertheyearsasfollows:Long‐termcommitmentisimportantinsportfordevelopment.Unlessthegovernmentanditspartnersare

preparedtoworkinacountryforaprolongedperiodoftime,itwillbedifficulttoachievepositiveresultsandtoestablishtruecollaborationamongmultiplestakeholders(SDPIWG,2007).Atthemoment,oneofthemostambitiousSfDpoliciesbydonorcountriesseemstobedeliveredbyAustralia.Recently,itlauncheditsDevelopment‐through‐sport2013‐2017strategy,whichcanbedescribedaselaborate.Itidentifiesdevelopmentobjectivesfirstandthenidentifieshowwellplannedsport‐basedactivitiescancontributetotheseobjectivesviaajointstrategybetweentheAustralianSportsCommission(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AusAID).

UnitedKingdomThenationalgovernmentsupportssportdevelopmentandhumandevelopmentthroughsportundertheInternationalDevelopmentAssistanceProgram(IDAP).UKSport,asemi‐independentagencyoftheDepartmentofCulture,MediaandSport(DCMS),isleadingtheactivitiesoftheUnitedKingdom.SwitzerlandTheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(SDC),aspartoftheForeignMinistry,istheleadingbodyforSFDwithintheSwissgovernment,inclosecooperationwiththeFederalOfficeofSport(FOSPO).CanadaCanadianHeritage(PCH)andtheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA),theDepartmentofNationalDefence(DND),andForeignAffairsandInternationalTradeCanada(DFAIT)allmakeandhavemadesignificantinvestmentsinsportfordevelopmentovertheyears.NorwayTheMinistryofForeignAffairs(MFA)isresponsiblefortheNorwegianStrategyforCultureandSportsCooperation.MFAandNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(NORAD)arejointlyinvolvedinSFD.NoradprimarlyworkswithNGOsandprovideslongtermdevelopmentassistance.NIFisanimportantimplementingpartner.AustraliaTheDevelopment‐through‐sport2013‐2017strategyisajointeffortoftheAustralianSportsCommission(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AusAID).Box5:internationalpolicy

NationalDutchpoliciesonSfDhavebeeninfluential,butnotverystableovertheyears.Thisfluctuationcanbetracedbacktoseveralfactors,suchasthevaryingpoliticalattentionandaccompanyingresources.Overtheyears,theDutchpoliticallandscapeanddevelopmentcooperationpolicychanged,influencingtheMinistryofForeignAffairs’involvementinsport.Attimes,sportandinternationalcooperationbecameeithermarginalizedorstimulated,ashasbeendescribedin2.1.

RemarkableintheDutchorganizationofSfDovertheyearsisthattheprogramisnotimplementedbyoneortwocentralparties,butratherbyanumberofmutualreinforcingpartners.ThesearebothlocalactivepartnersaswellasvariousDutchorganizations.ThecurrentimplementingpartnersoftheDutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantroleinthecontinuityandenforcementofSfDintheNetherlands.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaydevelopedtheirprogramspartlybecauseofthepossibilitiesofDutchnationalpolicy,partlybecauseoftheliberty(andsometimesneed)totakeowninitiative.

AnotherremarkablenotionisthewayinwhichtheNetherlandsselectsitstargetcountries.AllgovernmentfundedprogramstakeplaceindevelopingcountrieswhichhaveahistoricalrelationshipwiththeNetherlandsand/orareafragilestate.Sincethiscriterionisdecisiveforreceivingfunding,thishashadamajorimpactonthecountryselectionbyDutchSfDorganizations.

2.3.2 Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches

ThecurrentSfDprogramcanbecharacterizedasapolicyframeworkthatallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.Pointofdeparturefortheimplementationistobundleforcesandtoavoidfragmentationinordertostrengthenownership,qualityandefficiency.Thereforeaprogrammaticapproachisbeingused,whichisneeds‐based,cohesiveandbaseduponacontextanalysisineachcountry.ThismeanstheDutchapproachisnotcharacterizedby‘onesizefitsall’,butby‘tailormade’.Theprogramaimstoconnecttheoperationsatmicro(grassroots)levelwiththecooperationatmeso(organizational)levelandadvocacyatmacro(nationalandinternational)level.

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaycanbecharacterizedbytheirstructuralinvolvementinSfD,long‐termrelationshipsinboththeNorthandtheSouth,andtheirspecificapproaches.Intheend,allthreepartnerswanttousethepowerofsporttoimprovethelivesofpeopleindevelopingcountries.‘Change’–inknowledge,attitudeorbehavior–istheirmainobjective.Atthesametime,theydifferinthewaytheywanttoachievethisobjective.Theyfocusondifferentapproaches,targetgroups,socialissuesandcountries,asillustratedinTable2:

‘Change’–inknowledge,attitudeorbehavior–isthemainobjectiveofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.

NSAInternational KNVB RightToPlayGoals Capacitybuildinginsportand

peaceprogramsandorganizations.IncreasingsupportforSfD

EducatingfootballcoachesDevelopinglocalcommunities

EducatingyouthleadersImplementingsportandplayprograms

Mainfocus Youthdevelopmentthroughhumanresourcesdevelopment(sportleadership),organizationalenforcement,institutionaldevelopment.Influencing(national)SfDpolicies

FootballskillscombinedwithlifeskillsLocalcapacitybuilding

Behavioralchange:physical,social,emotional,cognitiveLocalcapacitybuilding

Socialissues

SecurityandsafetyHealthEconomicempowermentGender

WASHGenderHIV/AIDSCrimeAddiction

EducationHealthPeacefulcommunities

Countries Kenya,Uganda,SouthSudan,Surinam,BurkinaFaso,Mali,Egypt,Indonesia,TheNetherlands

NetherlandsAntilles,Surinam,Brazil,Senegal,BurkinaFaso,Ghana,Kenya,Zambia,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,India,Indonesia,Morocco,Tunisia,Egypt,Jordan

Benin,Burundi,Ethiopia,Ghana,Kenya,Liberia,Mali,Mozambique,Rwanda,SouthSudan,Tanzania,Uganda,China,Jordan,Lebanon,Pakistan,PalestinianTerritories,Thailand,Peru

Selectionofprograms

YouthDevelopment/CountryprogramsInternationalSportLeadersExchangePeaceBeyondBordersActivecitizenshipDutchmovementSfD

FootballforWaterSOSChildren’sVillagesLightingUpCommunitiesClubLinkingArabicSpring

Countryprograms

Website www.nsa‐international.nl www.worldcoaches.nl www.righttoplay.nlTable2:DutchSFDpartners

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaydiffer,butareinmanywayscomplementary.WhereasRightToPlayistoalargeextentanimplementingorganization,NSAInternationaldoesnotexecutesportandplayprojectsitself,butfocusesonstructuralcapacitybuildingoflocalorganizationsanditsinstitutionalsurroundingsinordertodelivervaluableandsustainableprogramsforyouths.KNVBandRightToPlaybotheducatesportcoaches.KNVBtakessport(i.c.football)asastartingpointfordevelopment,whereasRightToPlayandNSAInternationalregardsportandplayasatoolfordevelopment.Allorganizationshavedevelopedcurriculaandmanualsforsport/footballtrainers/coaches.

Also,similaritiesinapproachescanbeanalyzed.TheDutchSfDpartnersareallaimedat‘software’intheformofcapacity‐building(i.e.transferofknowledgeandskills)insteadof‘hardware’(i.e.buildingsportfacilities).Thiscomesalongwiththedevelopmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals.ThisapproachiscomparablewiththeAustralianone,recentlypresentedintheirstrategy

for2013‐2017,butitcontrastswithapproachesfromFIFAforexample,whoseprogramsfloatonbuildingsportgrounds.

Furthermore,theDutchapproachcanbecharacterizedbyitsattempttosetuplocalnetworks,orcloselycooperatewithlocalorganizations,inordertocontributetolocalcapacitybuildingandsustainableprograms.TheDutchSFDorganizationsconsiderlocalcoachesorcommunityleadersasthemosteffectiverolemodelsandchangeagents.Again,similaritieswiththeAustralianapproacharise.AlsoDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)fromGermanyandNorgesIdrettsforbund(NIF)fromNorwayinvestinlocal‘soft’structures.Others,suchasUKSports,focusonstrengtheningthenationalsportssystemswithindevelopingcountriesworkingwithministries,sportsfederationsandNGOs,andnotsomuchincooperationwithcommunitybasedorganizations.CanadianHeritageinvestedalargeextentoftheirsportfordevelopmentfundsinadvocacyandsupportofinternationalnetworks.

ThethreeDutchpartnersemphasizeknowledgedevelopmentandsharing.NSAInternationalworkscloselytogetherwithvariousuniversitiesofappliedsciencesintheNetherlands,KNVBhasalongtermrelationshipwithUtrechtUniversityandRightToPlaycooperateswiththeUniversityofToronto.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenSFDorganizationsandscholarscanbeseeninAustraliaandtheUK.TheAustralianAIDandAustralianSportCommissionhavefoundedtheirSfDstrategyonvariousacademicreportsandUKSportshashadstudiescarriedoutbytheUniversityofStirling.Atthesametime,thecooperationbetweenacademicsandSfDorganizationsinothercountriesisoftenlimitedtoincidentalmonitoringandevaluation(M&E)studies.

Ingeneral,itcanbearguedthatthereisnotaspecificDutchapproachnorthatDutchorganizationsdosomethingcompletelydifferentthanotherSfDorganizations.Nevertheless,theDutchorganizationsdohavecertainfeaturesthatcharacterizetheirwayofworking.SeeBox6.

CommonfeaturesofDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizations• Focuson‘software’:transferofknowledgeandskills• Developmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals• Localcapacitybuildingthroughmulti‐stakeholderapproach• Localcoachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels• Knowledgedevelopment• Varietyofimplementingpartners

Box6:Featuresofthe‘Dutchapproach’

3Academicresearch:towardsamodelThischapterdescribestheexpansionofacademicinterestinSfD.Thiswillbeillustratedbythegrowingnumbersofconferences,journals,education,andpublications.Inthesecondpartofthischapterweexploreindepthwhathasbeenstudiedbythisgrowingnumberofinterestedscientists.Thisresultsintheintroductionofabasicmodelofsportfordevelopment.

3.1 TheexpansionofacademicinterestAsstatedinthepreviouschapter,‘sportfordevelopment’istheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution(Sugden,1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;Lyras&WeltyPeachey,2011).Inrecentyears,thenumberofnewprogramsandprojectshasincreased,justastheattentionbypolicymakersforsportfordevelopment.Subsequently,scientistsfromdifferentacademicdisciplinesdelveincreasinglyintothetopicofsportfordevelopment(Hognestad&Tollisen,2004;Coalter,2007,2010;Kidd,2008,2011;Levermore&Beacom,2009;Straume&Steen‐Johnsen,2012;Donnelly&Coakley,2013).Scientistsbecomeinterestedinthissocietalphenomenon,theywanttoresearchtheclaimsthatareformulatedinpolicyand/orareaskedbypolicymakersandpolicycontractorstostudytheimpactofprojectsandprograms.

3.1.1 Quantity

Itisnoteworthythattheincreasinguseoftheconcept‘sportfordevelopment’instudiessuggestsasignificantchangeinperspectiveonthisfieldasanacademicdisciplinehasoccurred.Untilthe1990s,sportfordevelopmentseemedtohavealowstandingacademicstatus(VanEekeren,2006).Studyingsportfordevelopmentwasapproachedasahobbygottenoutofhand,andnotasafactorcontributingtoaseriousacademiccareer.Now,wecanarguethatacademicoutput(suchasconferences,educationandpublications)hasincreasedsignificantly.

ConferencesAdecadeago,oneortwoannualinternationalconferencesweretakingplacewhereallpossibletopicswithinsportfordevelopmentwerediscussed(e.g.theNextStepConferences,meetingsbetweenpractitionersandacademicswithaverypracticalapproach,andtheMagglingenconferences,withpolicymakers,academicsandpractitionersandafocusonpolicyformulation)orsportfordevelopmentwasasmallpartofabroadersummit(e.g.WorldConferenceonSport,EducationandCulture).Nowadays,well‐attendedinternationalconferencesandnetworking

‘Sportfordevelopment’istheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution.

meetingsaretakingplacethewholeyearround,bothinFirstWorldcountriesandinthedevelopingcountries,oftenfocusingonjustonespecificthemewithinsportfordevelopment.Anoverviewofrecenteventsonwww.sportanddev.org(2013)showsthatfromFebruaryuntilJuly2013,37conferences,seminarsanddebateswereheldallovertheworld.

JournalsJournalsliketheInternationalReviewfortheSociologyofSport,SportinSociety,SociologyofSportJournal,SportManagementReview,JournalofSportandSocialIssuesandSoccerandSocietypublisharticlesaboutsportfordevelopment.InApril2013,thefirstacademicjournalexclusivelyfocusingonsportfordevelopmentwaspublished.Theeditorialteamofthe‘JournalofSportforDevelopment’(JSFD)conceivedtheideainNovember2011.Theywere‘frustratedbythepaucityofpublishedevidencesupportingthepositiverhetoricthatcontinuedtofuelthegrowthofSportforDevelopmentprograms’(Richardsetal.,2013)andnotedthatmanypractitionersdidnothaveaccesstothefewsubscription‐basedjournalsthatwerepublishingrelevantcontent.Thereforetheycameupwiththeideatodevelopapeer‐reviewed,openaccessjournaldedicatedentirelytosportfordevelopment.

EducationAcademicinstitutionsareofferinganincreasingnumberofbachelor,masterandPhDcoursesanddegreesintheareaofSportforDevelopment.Someexamplesofacademicprograms:SportandInternationalDevelopment(UniversityofBrighton,UK),InterdisciplinaryTrainingandResearchinSportandDevelopment(TheFirstCitizenSportFoundation,theUniversityofWestIndies,TrinidadandTobago;TheInterdisciplinaryCentreforSportandDevelopment(ICESSD),UniversityoftheWesternCapeSouthAfrica),SportsCoachingSciencewithDisabilitySport(UniversityofWorcester,UK),SportforSocialCoexistenceandConflictResolution(OpenUniversityofCatalonia,UNESCO,andFutbolClubBarcelonaFoundation,Spain),PhDinSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UniversityofUlster,Ireland),SportsPolicyandSportManagement(UtrechtUniversity),SportandDevelopment(UniversityofJohannesburg,SouthAfrica).Thisdevelopmentisalsodetectableinotherregions,likeAmericaandAustralasia.

PublicationsTheincreasedacademicinterestisbestreflectedinthenumberofscientificpublicationsoverthelastcoupleyears.SearchinginWebofScience,traditionallyregardedasthemostusefulandtrustfulacademicdatabase(Mikki,2009),givesanimpressionoftheincreasedamountofarticlespublishedinpeerreviewedjournals.Searchingonthekeywords“Sportfordevelopment”,“Sportanddevelopment”and“DevelopmentthroughSport”intheperiodbetween1998and2012,resultsin44articles.Mostofthosearticleswerepublishedsincetheyear2010,asillustratedinthefollowinggraph:

Figure2:Numberofarticlesperyearabout‘sportfordevelopment’,‘sportanddevelopment’and‘sportthroughdevelopment’inWebofScience

AnimportantremarkisthatWebofScienceislimitedtoarticleswhicharepublishedinjournalswhichhavepassedathoroughselectionprocessbasedonpublicationstandards,expertjudgments,regularappearancesandqualityofcitationdata(Garfield,1990;Mikki,2009).

GoogleScholar,anotheracademicdatabasereferredtoas‘anewparadigminacademicresearch’(Drewry,2007),coversawidervarietyofpublicationsthanWebofScience.Nexttojournalandconferencepapers,italsoincludesthesesanddissertations,academicbooks,pre‐prints,abstracts,technicalreportsandotherscholarlyliteraturefromallbroadareasofresearch2.Intheperiodbefore1998,141articleswiththesekeywordsareidentified.124ofthemwerepublishedinthe15yearsbetween1982and1997.Intheperiod1998‐2012theforegoingkeywordsresultedin2,050publications,asillustratedbythefollowinggraph:

Figure3:Numberofpublicationsperyearabout‘sportfordevelopment’,‘SportandDevelopment’and‘SportthroughDevelopment’inGoogleScholar

2ImportantsidenoteisthatinGoogleScholar,comparedtoWebofScience,lessdegreeofcontrolisofferedforperformingsystematicallysearches.Moreoveritiscriticized,contentlacksimportantsourcesandtheamountofnoisemakestheservicelessusefulforthoroughliteraturesearching(Mikki,2009).However,theamountofqualifiedscholarlycontenthasincreasedconsiderablyinGoogleScholarsinceitslaunchin2004anditisthereforearelevanttooltoprovideinsightintheincreasedinterestinthetopic.

02468

1012141618

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

ArticlesinWebofScience

050

100150200250300350400450

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

PublicationsinGoogleScholar

Thisgraphshowsundoubtedlythatthenumberofscientificpublicationsaboutsportfordevelopmentisrapidlyincreasing.Everyyear,morearticlesandbooksarewrittenaboutthissubject.Theincreasemightbefuelledbymegaeventstakingplaceindevelopingcountries,suchasFIFAWorldCupsandtheOlympicGames.SeveralorganizationsstartedforexamplenewprojectsinthecontextoftheWorldCupinSouthAfricain2010.Thismighthavedrawntheattentionofacademicsaswell.

3.1.2 Quality

Ananalysisofthepublishedscientificarticlesoverthelastyearsmakesclearthatnotonlyquantityhaschanged,thequalitativeaspectofthesepublicationsaswell.Intheearlyyearsofsportfordevelopmentasanacademicdiscipline,mostpublishedstudiesconcernedsinglecasestudies.Theygavevaluableinsightsintheprojects,buthadtwodisadvantages:notallkindsofprojectswerecoveredandtheymainlyhadafocusonsub‐SaharanAfrica.Moreover,theresultswerenotalwayscomparable.Nowadays,moreoftenamultiplecasestudymethodisusedandthosestudieshavealongertimespanthanbefore.Thelargeststudyeverconductedinthefieldconcernsanevaluationofsixsport‐basedprojectsinvariouspartsofworld(fundedbyComicReliefandUKSports)overafive‐yearperiodbyCoalterandTaylor(2010).Nonetheless,theneedformorelongitudinalstudiesremains,sincethemajorityofstudiesisbasedonashorttimeframe.

ThemesDifferentthemesarecoveredinthescientificpublications,asshowninfigure4.Theycanbedividedinthemesrelatedtotheimplementationofprojects,likevolunteerism,coachingandtraining,andthemeswhicharerelatedtooutcomes,likehealthandsocialcapital.Moststudiesarewrittenaboutsportfordevelopmentinrelationtohealth,butingeneraltheimplementation‐relatedthemesarethemoststudied.Manyarticlesmentionevaluations,partnerships,andcoachingandtraining.Volunteerismis,toalesserextent,alsofrequentlystudied.Articlesaboutsportmega‐eventsliketheOlympicGames/OlympicsandtheWorldCuparealsofrequentlypublished.

Figure4:NumberofpublicationsinEnglishaboutacertainthemeand‘sportfordevelopment’,‘SportandDevelopment’or‘SportthroughDevelopment’inGoogleScholar,1998‐2012

02004006008001000120014001600

Hea

lth

Evalua

tion

Partne

rship

Coac

hing

training

Peac

Olympics

Voluntee

rism

Race

Sportp

artic

ipation

Reso

lutio

Lifeskills

WorldCup

Socialcap

ital

ICT

Person

aldev

elop

men

tofchildren

Popularthemes

Publications

AuthorsMoststudiesareconductedbyresearchersfromdonorcountries.Thisisnotatrulysurprisingfact,howeveritemphasizesthemutual–oftentermed‘unequal’‐relationbetweendonorenreceivingcountries.TheconductedliteraturereviewisfocusedonacademicpublicationsintheEnglishlanguage,becauseofthelanguageproficiencyofresearchersandthepotentialglobalreachofpublications(seefigure5).

Figure5:NumberofpublicationsinacertainlanguageaboutSportforDevelopmentinGoogleScholar,1998‐2012

ItisrelevanttotakealookaswellatresearchpublishedintheSpanishlanguage,becausedevelopmentalworkalsotakesplaceinCentralandSouthAmericaandisimplementedbySpanishspeakingorganizations.Aquickscan(usingthekeywords“deporteparaeldesarrollo”;“deporteydesarrollo”;“desarrolloatravésdeldeporte”)madeclearthatthisamountisstillquitelimited.InWebofSciencenoarticleswerefound,inGoogleScholarthissearchresultedin100uniquearticlesintheperiodbetween1998and2013.Furthermore,wealsolookedatpublicationsinFrench,sincethesemaycaptureresearchundertakeninFrench‐speakingcountriesinAfrica(usingthekeywords“sportpourledéveloppement”;“sportetdéveloppement”;“développementparlesport’).Again,noresultsinWebofScience,whileGoogleScholarprovided125uniqueresults.

InlightoftheupcomingamountofprogramsinArabiccountries,researchpublishedinArabichasbeenreviewed.AsearchinArabic(“العربيةالبلادفىالتحسينفيالرىاضةعلاقة”,literallytranslatedmeaning‘therelationshipbetweensportsanddevelopmentintheArabicWorld’)inGoogleScholarresultedin176publications.Mostofthemarewebsitesleavingtheamountofscientificarticlesrelativelylow.Recurringthemesinthesepublicationsarethepromotionofparticipationinsportfordisabledpeopleandhealth‐relatedthemes.AsearchinEnglishforarticlesaboutsportfordevelopmentinArabcountriesresultedinabout66articles.Popularthemesarefemalerolemodelsinsport,peacebuildingandsportasamediatorbetweencultures(mostprojectsareschool‐basedco‐existenceprojectsforJewishandArabchildren),andtheroleofthemedia(especiallyintheUnitedArabEmirates).

84%

4% 5%7%

Publications

English Spanish French Arabic

Whenlookingattheresearchfrom‘theSouth’,researchersfromSouthAfricaarepresentininternationalacademiccircles.ResearchersfromotherSoutherncountriesarescarce.Nichollsetal.(2011)arguethatthelackofevidenceinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentcanbepartlyexplainedbythesubjugationoflocalknowledgeandknowledgeofsportfordevelopmentpractitioners.Theysuggestthatacknowledgingandprivilegingthecontributionstypicallymadetothefieldbythefemale,young,blackAfricansportfordevelopmentgrassrootspractitioners’knowledge,havethepotentialtoresultinamorerobustevidencebaseandchallengethelackofevidencediscourse.Thisisaninterestingperspective,sincecurrentevaluationofprograms‐iftherealreadyexistsanyformofsystematicevaluation–isoftendonor‐drivenandprovidesinmanycasesmainlyrelevantinformationforfunders.Thisknowledgeisnotaddedtothecurrentacademicknowledgebaseandinsomecasesisnotevenbeingusedforprogramdevelopment.

AcademicdisciplinesTheorderingofkeywordsoftheacademicarticlesfoundinWebofScienceresultsinthewordclouddepictedbelowinFigure6.Remarkableisthatmostconceptsareintheangleofdevelopmentstudies(social,moral,youth,communities,education,social,rightsanddecolonization)andcanbelessassociatedwithpurelysportsciences.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatjustasmallpartofresearchisdonefromasportsscienceperspective.Themainresearchareasinwhichsportfordevelopmentstudiesareconducted,areinpublicadministration,socialsciences,sociologyandpsychology.

Figure6:WordcloudbasedonordeningofkeywordsoftheacademicpublicationsfoundinWebofScience

SportfordevelopmentcomparedtocreativeactivitiesSeveraldevelopmentalorganizationsusecreativeactivitieslikedrama,music,theateranddanceinacomparablewaytotheuseofsportfordevelopment.Frequently,discussionsariseabouttheaddedvalueofeachactivity:whichactivityismosteffective?Questionedisalsowhetherorganizationsindifferentfieldscanorshouldlearnfromeachother.Figure7showsthatacademicshavepublishedlessaboutthesecreativeactivitiesthanaboutsport.Withinthecreativeactivities,academicshavewrittenmorescientificpublicationsaboutdramaandmusicthanabouttheateranddance.Butevenifallthoseactivitiesarecombined,theconclusionisthattheacademicattentionforcreativeactivitiesislessthantheattentionforsportfordevelopment.

Figure7:NumberofpublicationsinEnglishaboutacertainactivityanddevelopmentinGoogleScholar,1998‐2012

ResearchmethodsGrattonandJones(2004)describeseveralpossibleresearchdesignsforsportsstudies:fromexperimentaldesignstosurveysandfromcasestudy’stolongitudinalapproaches.Thechoiceforaresearchdesignisbasedontheresearchquestionandtheobjectivesofthestudy,butisalsoinfluencedbypracticalissuesandthebackgroundoftheresearcher.Whereassincerecentyearswithindevelopmentstudiesquantitativemethods(householdsurveysincombinationwithregressionanalysis)areincreasinglybeingused,thiskindofresearchishardlydonewithinsportfordevelopment.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatmostresearchconductedinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentisdoneinacademicdisciplinessuchaspublicadministration,socialsciences,psychologyandsportsciences.

Economistsandstatisticsadvocatesareunderrepresented,andsoarehealthscientists.MosthealthrelatedresearchinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentisfocusedonthepreventionofHIV/AIDS,sincethisinvolvesawarenessandeducationinterventionsandrequiresbehavioralchange.Behavioralchangeismostresearchedbypsychologistsandsociologists.Atthesametime,theacademicdebateonsportmegaeventshasattractedtheattentionofeconomists,whichoftenfocusonamacrolevelapproach.

Theoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentprogramsareoftenhardtoexplicitandsubsequentlytomeasure.Therefore,themainquantitativedataisonoutput,suchasparticipationinsports(numberofparticipants,numberoftrainedcoaches,numberoftrainingsessionsetc.)andnotonthesubsequenthigherdevelopmentgoals.Atthesametime,politiciansandpolicymakersfeelthenecessityandtendencytoquantifyoutcomesandtosuggestacausalrelationbetweeninterventionsandoutcomes,inlightofaccountabilityissues.Thiscanresultinaclashwiththeperceptionsofgrassrootspractitioners.

Recently,anacademicaltitudehasbeenreached,whenLyras(2009)advancedaSportforDevelopmentTheory(SFDT)groundedinempiricalevidencefromthefield,whichadvocatesan

72%

11%

Publicationsaboutcreativeactivitiesfordevelopment

Sport Drama Music Theater Dance

interdisciplinaryapproach.Althoughothertheoreticalapproacheshavepreviouslybeenexploredwithintheglobalsportfordevelopmentliterature,SFDTistheoneofthefirstattemptstoprovideatheoreticalfoundationforthemanagementofsportinterventionseffectivelypromotingsocialchange,peace,anddevelopment(Lyras&WeltyPeachy,2011).Morespecifically,SFDTwasdesignedtoaddressthegapbetweentheoryandpracticebyusingscientificprocedurestoassessthreecomponents–content,process,andoutcomes–ofsportfordevelopmentprograms.

3.2 TowardsabasicmodelforsportfordevelopmentInlightoftheincreasedamountofresearchandinspiredbytheSFDT,inthisparagraphatheoreticalmodelwillbeexploredthatdescribeshowsport(not)contributestodevelopment.Oneofthemostrelevantquestionsis:Whatclaimscanandcannotbemadeaboutsportfordevelopmentbasedonthecurrentexistingacademicliteratureandunderwhatcircumstancescansportcontributetodevelopmentgoals?

3.2.1 Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes

Asthefirstchaptersrevealed,foryearshighexpectationshavebeenimposedonsportfordevelopment:sportwassupposedtobringpeace;povertyandracismwoulddiminish;healthcareandeducationwouldimprove.Sportfordevelopmentprogramsareoftenexecuted,evaluatedandfundedwiththeexpectationofreachingoneoftheseoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomes.Inacademicstudies,theoutcomes‘health’and‘socialcapital’havefrequentlybeenobjectofresearch.

Fundamentaltomanysportfordevelopmentprograms,isthedesiretoinfluencethebehaviorofpeople.ViaSfDprojects,developmentalworkerstrytotransferknowledge(forexample,abouttheconsequencesofnotwashingyourhands).Thisknowledgeissupposedtoinfluencetheattitudesofpeople(e.g.,abouttheimportanceofhygiene)andleadtoachangeintheirbehavior(e.g.,towashtheirhandsmoreoften).Fishbein&Azjen(1975)explainedintheirtheoryofplannedbehaviorhowpeoplebasetheirbehavioronknowledgeandattitude.Accordingtothem,itiscomplicatedtoreachthedesiredbehavioralchange,becausemanyfactorsinfluencethischange,likeperceivedcontrolandsocialnorms.TheirtheorymakesclearthatitisnoteasytoreachtheoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomeswhicharesometimesclaimedbySfDprojectsortheirfunders.

Itishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomes,exceptforhealth,becauseallotherrelationshipsareindirectandcorrelatewithavarietyofotherfactors(Coalter,2013).Sporttakesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.Therefore,SfDprojectsshouldbeseenassitesforsocialexperiences,notcausesforsocialoutcomes(cf.Coakley,1998).Similarly,Sugden(2006)suggestedthatsportislikeallcollectivehumanendeavors,itisasocialconstructionwhichisinfluencedbythesocialforcesthatsurroundit.Thismeansthatthesuccessofsportin

Itishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesexceptforhealth,becauseallotherrelationshipsareindirectandcorrelatewithavarietyofotherfactors.

‘doinggood’dependsonthecontextandthemanagementofasupportive(social,cultural,political,resourceandsport)environment.Itisnotsimply‘sport’whichachievespossiblepositiveornegativeoutcomes,butthewaythatsportisprovidedandexperienced(Catalanoetal.,2004;Coalter,2006;Sugden,2010;Coalter,2010;Lyras&WelthyPeachey,2011).

Surveyingtheresearch,healthistheonlyoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomethatshowsadirectrelationshipwithphysicalactivity.Theassumptionthatsportandphysicalactivitycanleadtoimprovedhealthisincontestablenowadays(WHO,1995).Intheliteratureadualrelationshiphasbeenproven:goodhealthistheoutcomeofsport,butagoodstateofhealthisalsoapreconditiontopracticesport(Güldenpfennig,1996).Sportinterventions,likeprogramsandplaygrounds,canplayanimportantroleinstimulatingpeopletoparticipateinsport,eventhosewhowouldusuallyrefrain.Empiricalevidenceexistsonthebeneficialoutcomesofsportondifferentlevels:individual,communityandnation/society(SDPIWG,2007).Nexttostudiesthatpointatimprovedhealthorbetterfitnessingeneral,morespecificstudieshavebeenpublished.Forexample,areductionasaresultofphysicalactivityhasbeenproveninnon‐communicablediseases,suchascardiovasculardiseases(Warburtonetal.,2006;WHO,2007),someformsofcancer(Holmesetal.,2005;Haydonetal.,2005),osteoporosis(Warburtonetal.2006),andsportleadstoalowerriskonheartdisease,chronicrespiratorydisease,earlydeath,strokeandhighbloodpressure(SDPIWG,2007).PeoplewhoplaysportshavealowerBodyMassIndex(BMI).Therefore,sporthelpstopreventobesity(Currie,2011;Blair&Church,2004;Rock,Valle&Grabman,2013)andcertaintypesofdiabetes(Warburtonetal.,2006).

Alesstangibleeffectisthatsportleadstomentalhealthandpsychologicalwell‐being(Biddleetal.,2000;Fox,1999,Valoisetal.,2004).Sportsupportsthepreventionofdepression(Stubbe,2006)andhelpstocopewithstress(Berger,1996).Sportmightdecreasethelikelihoodofunhealthypractices,suchasillegaldruguse(Taliaferro,Rienzo&Donovan,2010).ResearchalsosuggeststhatsportandphysicaleducationmayplayaroleinthefightagainstHIV/AIDS,byprovidingapopularsiteforpreventiveeducationandsomeretardationintheprogressofthevirus(Mustafaetal.,1999;O’Brienetal.,2004;Delva&Temmerman,2006;Delvaetal.,2010;Maro,Roberts&Sørensen,2009;Lindsey&Banda,2011;Njelesani,2011;Banda&Lindsey,2011).Amoreoverarchingoutcomeisthatregularphysicalactivitymayreducethedaysindividualsaresickduringtheyear.Thishaspotentialforreductionsinhealthcarespendingaswellasincreasednationalproductivity.

Itisimportanttopayattentiontotheexistenceofhealthobjectivesvaryingfromcountrytocountry.Whereasindevelopedcountriesmoreemphasisisputonspecifichealthobjectivesforanagingpopulation(suchasosteoporosis),thiscanbedifferentfordevelopingcountries,wherehealthobjectivesarefocusedonthereductionofcommunicablediseases(e.g.HIV/AIDS).Oneshouldalsobeawarethattherecanbeseveralconditionsindevelopingcountries,suchasashortageofmedicinesorconflictingculturalbeliefs,thatmakeitmoredifficulttoreachdesiredoutcomes.Itisalsoimportanttowarnagainstanoverlypositivejudgmentofsport,becausesportalsohasamoredarkside.Eveninthefieldofhealth,wheremanypositiveoutcomeshavebeenproven,negativeoutcomesarefrequent.Sportcanresultininjuries,andlosingagamecanproducenegativefeelingslikedepressionoranger(Berger,1996).

SfDprojectsshouldbeseenassitesforsocialexperiences,notcausesforsocialoutcomes.

Basedontheliterature,itcanbearguedthatinandofitself,sportisofnointrinsicvalue:itisneithernaturallygoodnorirrevocablybad(Kidd,2008).Coalter(2010)warnsforthedangerofde‐contextualized,overlyromanticized,communitariangeneralizationsaboutthe‘power’ofsportfordevelopment.Itisnotsimplesportsparticipationthatcanhopetoachievemostdesiredoutcomes.

3.2.2 Intermediateoutcomes

Inthepreviouspartofthischapter,itbecameclearthatthedesireddevelopmentoutcomesforSfDprogramsareoftentooambitious.Althoughadirectrelationbetweensportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesarehardtoprove,ifcertainconditionsaremet,sportmightresultinintermediateoutcomesasanessentialelementintheproductionoftheoverarchingdevelopmentaloutcomes,likesocializationofyouthandeconomicdevelopment.

Academicliteratureshowsalonglistofpossibleintermediateoutcomes,whichare(also)valuableinitself,suchasimprovedsocialskills,increasedself‐esteemandincreasedconfidence.Examplesofintermediateoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentare(cf.Jarvie,2003;SDPIWG,2007;Coalter,2010):

• developmentoflifeskills• increasedsocialinteraction• newrelationshipsandrolemodels• increasedself‐esteemandself‐confidence• leadershipdevelopment• increasedunderstandingofsocialissues• communitybuilding.

Alsolessdesiredoutcomescanoccur.Forexample,sportprogramscanleadtomoreself‐esteem,butalsotoarrogance.Sportcanleadtoteambuilding,butalsotoexclusionofothers,whoarenotpartoftheteam.Sportleadstohealthbenefits,butprolongedexercisesmayincreasetheriskonupperrespiratorytractinfections(Nieman,2001).Socialcapitalcanbeseenasanoverarchingtermthatcomprisesseveralpossibleintermediateoutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.Ausefulgeneraldefinitionofsocialcapitalisthatitrefersto‘socialnetworksbasedonsocialandgroupnorms,whichenablepeopletotrustandcooperatewitheachotherandviawhichindividualsorgroupscanobtaincertaintypesofadvantage’(Coalter,2010).Inotherwords,socialcapitalemphasizesandreferstothevalueofsocialnetworks.Likeotherformsofcapital,socialcapitalmakestheachievementofcertainendspossible.Itisassumedthatanincreaseofsocialcapitalwillhaveapositiveimpactonsocialissues,suchasgenderrelations,HIV/AIDS,crimeandalcoholanddrugaddiction.Fukuyama(1999)statesthatsocialcapitalcanhaveaneconomicandasocialeffect.Economically,socialcapitalincludesnormsandvaluesthatfacilitateexchanges,lowertransactioncosts,reducethecostofinformation,permittradeintheabsenceofcontractsandthecollectivemanagementofresources.Socially,socialcapitalencouragesresponsiblecitizenship.Socialcohesionbetweenpeopleinthecommunity,besidesphysicalquality,cancontributetoasaferlivingenvironment.Inacommunitywithhightrust,itislikelytohaveless

Sportcanproduceintermediateoutcomesthatarevaluableinitself,suchasimprovedsocialskills,increasedself‐esteemandincreasedconfidence.Theseintermediateoutcomesareanessentialelementintheproductionoftheoverarchingdevelopmentaloutcomeslikesocializationofyouthandeconomicdevelopment.

crime,lessantisocialbehaviorandlesssocialfragmentation(Jarvie,2003).Intheend,however,socialcapitalremainsquiteintangible,becauseitexistsinrelationships(Coleman,1988).

Socialcapitalisseenasessentialforacommunity,though.Communitieswithhighlevelsofsocialcapitalarecharacterizedbythreemaincomponents(Coalter,2010).Firstly,theyhavestrongsocialnetworksandcivicinfrastructure.Secondly,theyarecharacterizedbystrongsocialnorms.Thirdly,thesenormsbothsupportandreinforcemutualtrustandreciprocityamongmembersofacommunity.Thesethreecomponentsareillustrativeforthepotentialofsocialcapitalfordevelopmentends.Twomaincomponentsofsocialcapitalarebondingsocialcapitalandbridgingsocialcapital.Bondingreferstothevalueassignedtointra‐groupconnectionsorsocialnetworksbetweenhomogeneousgroupsofpeople.Thebridgingcomponentofsocialcapitalismorediverseandinclusiveofpeopleofdifferentbackgrounds,buttendstobeweaker.Schulenkorf(2013)addedathirdcomponent:linkingsocialcapital,whichreferstotherelationshipsofindividualsandgroupswithpeopleinpositionsofinfluencewithinformalinstitutions.Thekeypointoflinkingsocialcapitalis“it’snotwhatyouknow,it’swhoyouknow”.

Sportshaveextensivelybeenrelatedtosocialcapitalanditsconsequences.Forexample,severalstudieshavementionedthatsportleadstomoreself‐confidence,self‐approvalandself‐efficacy,andto‘lifeskills’likediscipline,responsibilityandperseverance(e.g.VanBottenburg&Schuyt,1996;Berger,1996;Malloyetal.,2003;Bailey,2005),buttherearealsoexamplesofstudiesthatshowthatsportcanleadtonegativeconsequences.Forinstance,sportdoesnotautomaticallyprovidebridgesfordisparatecommunities,butsportmayinfactserveasalocusforintergroupdivision.Membersofmarginalizedgroupshaveusedsportclubsasanoutletinwhichtheyexclusivelyconfirmtheirethnicidentitythroughhomogeneousactivities.Thus,asportprojectcanalsoleadtotheexclusionofoutsiders(Portes,1998;Vermeulen&Verweel,2009).

Thepositiveconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapitalaresummarizedintable3.

Level ConsequencesMicro(individual)

Developmentofhumancapital:• Socialandemotionalskills• Education• ExpertiseHigheraccesstoemployment

Meso(community/group)

SocialinclusionandcommunitybuildingStrongrelationships/networksReciprocalserviceprovision:peopleareofferinghelpandreceivingadviceorsupportinotherareasSharednormsEnergeticcommunitiesHigherlevelofcivicandvoluntaryactivity

Macro(nation/society)

StrongercivilsocietyMorecivicprideEnhanceddemocracy

Table3:Positiveconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapital(basedonJarvie,2003;Schulenkorf,2013;SDPIWG,2007;Verweel&Anthonissen,2006)

Jarvie(2003)alsogivesanoverviewofthenegativeconsequencesthatmightbeassociatedwithsocialcapital.Theseconsequencesaresummarizedintable4.

Level ConsequenceMicro(individual)

Restrictionsofpersonalfreedomandautonomybecauseofconformitywithinthegrouporcommunity

Meso(community/group)

TheexclusionofoutsidersGrouporcommunityclosurewhichinhibitstheeconomicsuccessofitsmembers.Free‐ridingonthepartofsomegroupmembers.

Macro(nation/society) DownwardlevelingnormsbecauseofconformitywithinthegrouporcommunityTable4:Negativeconsequencesassociatedwithsocialcapital(basedonPortes,1998andJarvie,2003)

Schulenkorf(2013)warnsthattheabilityofshort‐terminterventionstocreatesocialcapitalneedstobecriticallyassessed,especiallyregardingclaimsaboutevents’lastingcontributionstosocialcapital.Despitethestrongtheoreticalandanecdotalsupporthighlightingthatsportandeventprogramscanhaveapositiveimpactoncommunities,littleempiricalevidencesupportsthisclaim–particularlyinrelationtoculturallyorethnicallydividedsocieties.Aneedremainsforempiricalevaluationsofprograms.Coakley(2002)addsthat,despitethemanystudiesontheimportanceforsportandcharacterbuilding,adirectinfluenceishardtoprove,theimpactofsportcannotbeseparatedfromtheimpactofcontextualfactors.Heconcludesthatsportismainlyimportantasaplaceforsocializationexperiencesthatmightinfluencethecharacterofanindividual.

3.2.3 Necessaryandsupportingconditions

Kay&Dudfield(2013,p.5)argue:“Sportisnotapanaceaforglobalsocialandeconomicchallenges,butusedappropriatelyitisavaluablecross‐cuttingtoolthatcansignificantlystrengthenestablisheddevelopmentapproaches.”Now,thequestionis:Whatis‘appropriateuse’?Itisclearthatcertainconditionshavetobemetinordertobeabletocreateintermediateoutcomes.Academicliteraturegivesinsightinsomeofthenecessaryandsupportingconditions.

See Also

Croazieră în Golful Persic

Takingpartinsportcanbeseenasanecessaryconditionfordesiredoutcomestobeachievedandincreasedparticipationisaclearobjectiveofallprograms(MahoneyandStattin,2000).Sportcanbeseenasatoolforengagementandmobilization:peopleshowupatasportseventbecausetheyareattractedbytheprograms.ThisoffersSfDorganizationstheopportunitytoreachthem,toinformthemortoeducatethem(Kay&Dudfield,2013).Inlinewiththebroadpossibilityofpossibleoutcomes,theeffectsofsportfordevelopmentcangobeyondtheparticipantsinasportfordevelopmentprogram.Sportalsocontributestothedevelopmentofthespectators(forinstance,iftheyseethatdisabledpeoplecanplaysports),oftheleadersthatareinvolved(e.g.vialeadershipskillsforcoaches),tothefamilyoftheparticipants(forexample,childrentelltheirparentsabouthygiene)andforthecommunityasawhole(e.g.whenorganizationsareformedandmorechildrenattendschools)(VandenHeuveletal.,2007;Kay&Dudfield,2013).Atthesametime,itcannotbeassumedthatallthosewhotakepartinsportexperienceitthesamewayandobtaintheintendedbenefits.

Supportingconditionsrefertothenatureofprocessesandthevariousorganizationalandprogramcomponentswhichleadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes,suchastheorganization,theroleofcoaches,andthecontextorenvironment.Theseconditionsapplymainlyonalocallevel,buttheyarestronglyinfluencedbythepolicyandorganizationonahigherlevel(Kay&Dudfield,2013):theprogramsandpoliciesfordevelopmentalworkorthewayaSfDorganizationworks.

SomesupportingconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject.Forinstance,withouttheprovisionof(basic)sportfacilitiesandequipment,informationabouttheactivitiesandanorganizedeventorcompetition,itishardtorunasportfordevelopmentprogram.Kay&Dudfield(2013)arguethatprogramsshouldbedesignedonthebasisofevidence‐basedmodels,andthattheSfDorganizationshouldtakecareofconductingprogramswithsystematicmeasurementofprogressandappropriatemonitoringandevaluation.Moreresearchneedstobedonetoanswerthisquestion.

Also,awell‐organizedorganizationisessentialfortheachievementofdevelopmentthroughsport(Mahoney&Stattin,2000).VariousstudiesarguethatsuccessfulSfDorganizationsareconsciouslyandsystematicallyorganizedtomaximizethepossibilityofachievingsocialcapital.Thetypeandstrengthoftheoutcomeswilldependonthesizeandtypeoforganization(e.g.isolatedorconnected,singleormulti‐sport,urbanorrural,competitiveorrecreational,singleormixedsex)andtheirrelationshipswiththe‘community’(bothlocalandsporting)–the‘radiusoftrust’.However,bothCoalter(2010)andMahoneyandStattin(2000)arenotclearwhichformsoforganizationsleadtowhichoutcomes.

Animportantsupportingconditionisthetrainingofthecoaches,whoshouldhavethepossibilitytotransformthemselvesintoleadersandtoimprovetheirleadershipskills.Asportcoachneedstobemorethanjustatrainerinthesport‐heorsheshouldalsobeacoachinlifeskills.Goodcoachesbecomementorsoftheparticipants.Thisisinlinewiththetheoryofplannedbehavior,whereFishbein&Azjen(1975)alsoexplainthatsubjectivenorms,thebeliefsofpeopleinthesocialenvironmentandofexperts,areimportantforbehavioralchange.Requirementstotheenvironmentcanbephysical(liketheavailabilityofapitch),butalsosocial(e.g.,themoralacceptanceofgirlsplayingsports)(Sallisetal.,2004).AnimportantconditionforthedeliveryofSfDprogramsistoinvolvethesocialenvironment,suchasthecoaches,parentsandotherlocalstakeholders,inthedesign,implementationandreflectionoftheprogram.Toensurethatleadersandparticipantsaresafeguardedatalltimes,Kay&Dudfield(2013)arguethatdecentralizedprogramsinvolvingtheintendedbeneficiaries,andtakingtheircommunitiesintoaccountintheplanningprocess,andconsideringthelocalneedsandassets,areusefultomaximizepositiveoutcomesandminimizenegativeconsequencesintheorganizationofSfD.

3.2.4 Themomentoftruth

Theextenttowhichthefulfillmentoftheconditionseventuallyleadstothedesired(intermediate)outcomesdependsonthewaytheprogramisexecuted.Coalter(2008etc)makesastrongcasein

arguingthatoutcomesareverymuchdependentonthespecificlocalcontextsinwhichtheprojectstakeplaceandontheprocessesbetweenparticipantsthathappenwithinthesecontexts(seealsoHartmann&Kwauk,2011;Coakley,2011).The‘magicbox’ofsportfordevelopmentprojectscontainscomplexsituationalprocessesthatneedtobeunderstoodinmoredepthinordertobebetterabletoassess/contextualizetheoutcomesandtomakecontributionsforimprovement.AccordingtoCoalter(2010),weareleftatthemomentwithquestionsabouthowtounderstandtherelationshipsbetweenformsofsport,formsoforganization,typesofsocialcapitalandformsofdevelopment,ortheextenttowhichsuchrelationshipscanexist.Onceagain,thestatementisconfirmedthat‘socialinterventionsarealwayscomplexsystemsthrustamidstcomplexsystems’.

AccordingtoCoakley(2011:309)outcomesofsportforyouthdevelopmentaredependenton‘combinationsofmultiplefactors’includingtheorientationsandactionsofcoaches.Theroleofcoachandsportleaderisconsideredcrucialintheprojects:‘findingthatqualitycoachingiscriticalforensuringthebeneficialeffectsofyouthsportsparticipation’(Hedstrom&Gould,2004:9).Thesportcoachorsportleadercanbeanidentityagentbyparticipatingintheidentityformationofchildren(VanEekeren&Vermeulen,2011).Itcanbearguedthattheinteractionofthesportleaderwithparticipantsonthepitch,notablytheyouths,isthe‘momentoftruth’inSfDprojects.Theconceptofthe‘momentoftruth’iswellknowninmanagementandorganizationalstudiesandisusuallydefinedasaninstancewhereinthecustomerandtheorganizationcomeintocontactwithoneanotherinamannerthatgivesthecustomeranopportunitytoeitherformorchangeanimpression.TheoriginaltheorywasintroducedbyRichardNorman(1991).Value,inNormansview,iscreatedduringtheactualinteractionbetweenthecontractoronbehalfoftheorganizationandtheclient.

Althoughliteraturetellsusthattheroleofsportcoachesiscrucial,qualitativeinsightinhisorherperformanceonthesportfield,andtheactualmomentoftruth,isscarce.Littleisknownaboutwhattakesplaceonthesportfieldoraboutthevoicesoftheparticipantsonthefield,inordertoassesstheoutcomesofSfDprojects.Asaconsequence,littleisknownaboutthewaySfDorganizationscanfacilitatethemomentoftruthandthesportcoachesinordertocreatevalueandcontributetodesiredoutcomes.

3.2.5 Uniquenessofsportfordevelopment

Beforeintegratingallthisintoacomprehensivemodel,thefollowingquestionwillbeanswered:Whyshouldoneusesportasameansforachievingdevelopmentaloutcomesatall?Itcanbearguedthatforseveralreasonssportisverysuitablefordevelopmentalprojects.Firstly,sporthasanuniqueattractivepower,whichcontributestothenecessaryconditionfordevelopment,i.e.participation.Sporthasthe‘X‐factor’:allovertheworld,individualsandgroupsofvariousagesandbackgroundsareinterestedinsport.Sportispartofthe‘culturalheritage’:itisabasicpartofmanysocieties(VanEekeren,2007)andithasworldwiderolemodelsthatenthusemillionsaroundtheglobebehavior.Also,sportisveryvisibleandaccessible.Sportcanbeafun,non‐threateningandinformalwaytobringpeopletogether:participants,spectatorsandvolunteers.Sporteventsareintegrativeand

Theinteractionofthesportleaderwithparticipantsonthepitch,notablytheyouths,isthe‘momentoftruth’inSfDprojects.

offeropportunitiesforthedevelopmentofasenseofcommunity,socialcommitmentandsocialregeneration(Misener&Mason,2006).Therefore,sportissuitableforattractinggroupsthatareusuallyhardtoreach,liketeenagers.

Secondly,sporthassomeintrinsicvaluesthatareveryimportantforsociety.Sportcontainselementsthatplayanimportantroleineverydaylife,suchasdealingwithsuccessandfailure,followingrulesaswellasruleevasion,teamunityandindividualdifferences,andself‐control(VandenHeuveletal.,2008).Atthesametime,trainingcanbeusedtospreadsocialmessagesandtoexposemodelbehaviortospecifictargetgroups.Thebenefitsofsportareconsideredespeciallyrelevantforthemostvulnerable,includingthepoorandexcluded,girlsandwomen,peoplewithadisability,thoselivinginconflictareas,andthoserecoveringfromtrauma(Bailey,2006).Allthesefeaturesmakesportasiteforsocializationexperiences(Coakley,1998),auniqueopportunitythatmighthelptoreachdevelopmentoutcomes.

3.2.6 Amodelforsportfordevelopment

Theliteraturereviewgivesusinsightinthepotentialvalueofsport.Itcanbearguedthatsportoffersauniquesiteforsocializationexperiences,whichinanindirectwaymighthaveanimpactonoverarchingdevelopmentgoals,suchashealth,childandyouthdevelopment,genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment,conflictresolutionandpeace‐buildingandeconomicdevelopment.Theactualachievementofthesedevelopmentgoalsdependsonmanyvariablesandonmanysportshaslittleornoinfluence.Thecontributionofsporttotheoverarchinggoalsisthroughachievingintermediategoals.Theseintermediategoalscanbereacheddirectlythroughsportsinterventionsandoftenrelatetoincreasingsocialcapital.Thesegoalsarenoteasytoachieveandseveralconditionsmustbemet.Oneconditionisnecessary:participation.Otherconditionsaresupportiveinachievingtheintermediategoals,suchastheparticipationoftheintendedbeneficiariesandlocalstakeholdersintheplanningprocess.TheeffectoftheSfDprogramsdependsprimarilyon‘themomentoftruth‘:theactualinteractionbetweensportscoachesandparticipantsinthelocalcontext.Littleisknownabouthow‘themomentoftruth’isbestfacilitatedbySfDorganizations,inawaythatmaximizesthechancesofachievingtheintermediateoutcomes.TherelationshipbetweenSfDprograms,thenecessaryandsupportingconditions,themomentoftruth,intermediateoutcomes,externalvariablesandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesisshownschematicallyinabasicSfDmodel,seeFigure8.Inthemodeladistinctionismadebetweentwolevels.Level1isthepartofthemodelwheresportfordevelopmentcaninfluenceresults.Ifthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremet,itislikelythatthisresultsintheintermediateoutcomes.Thatisnotthecasefortheoverarchingoutcomes.Theintermediateoutcomeshelpinachievingtheoverarchingoutcomes,butthecontextismoreinfluential.Therefore,thisiscalledlevel2:thevariablesthatarehardly,orcannotbe,influencedbysportfordevelopmentorganizations.

Figure8:Therelationchainofsportandoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomes

Sportasa‘Siteforsocialization

experiences’

NecessaryconditionParticipationinsport

Supportingconditions,suchas:‐Provisionofsportfacilitiesandequipment,competitionandevents ‐Programsconsciouslyandstructurallyorganizedtocreatesocialcapital‐Involvementofintendedbeneficiariesandcommunityinplanningprocess,‐Involvementofsustainableandrepresentativegrassrootsorganizations‐Programsbasedonevidence‐basedmodels,continuouslearningthroughM&E‐Educatingsportcoaches,includingleadershiptraining‐Safeguardingofleadersandparticipants,involvementofsocialenvironment

Level1

‘TheMomentofTruth’

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes,suchas:‐Health,includingHIV/Aidsprevention‐Childandyouthdevelopment‐Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment‐Conflictresolutionandpeace‐Economicdevelopment

Externalvariables

Intermediateoutcomes,suchas:

‐ Developmentof‘lifeskills’‐ Increasedsocialinteractionandmobilization‐ Newrelationshipsandrolemodels‐ Increasedself‐esteemandconfidence‐ Leadershipdevelopment‐ Increasedunderstandingofsocialissues‐ Communitybuilding

Level2

4SpecificdevelopmentissuesInthefollowingparagraphswewillexplicitlyzoominonsomespecificdevelopmentissueswhichareparticularlyrelevantinlightofcurrentDutchpolicyonsportfordevelopment,asformulatedbytheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairs,andwhicharethefocusoftheprogramsofRightToPlay,KNVBandNSAInternational,namely:

• Childandyouthdevelopment:educationandbehaviorchange• Girl/womenempowerment/genderequality• Peace‐buildingandconflictresolution

4.1 Childandyouthdevelopment:EducationOneoftheoverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesfortheDutchorganizationsactiveinSfDischildandyouthdevelopment.Thereisastrongassociationbetweensportandyouth,whichmakessportavaluabletoolforworkingwithyoungpeople(Kay&Dudfield,2013).Sportcanbeusedasadirecteducationaltool.Kay(2009)mentionsforexamplethatSfDprogramsexaminemoralissuesfromtheperspectiveofthe‘fairplay’rulesinsport.Sportis,inthiscase,usedaspartoftheeducationalprogram.Inthischapterwewilllookatamoreindirectrelationbetweensportandeducation:doesparticipationinphysicalactivitiesleadtobetterschoolperformance?Therelationshipbetweenphysicalactivityandeducationaloutcomeshasbeenstudiedfrequently(SDPIWG,2007).Thesestudieshavemainlybeenconductedinindustrializedcountries,liketheUnitedStates(e.g.Scheuer&Mitchell,2003;Valoisetal.,2004;Bailey,2005).

Researchsuggestscontradictoryoutcomesfortherelationshipbetweensportandeducation.Ontheonehandsportisassumedtohaveapositiveimpactoneducationbyimprovingcognitiveskills.Ontheotherhand,spendingtimeonsportsmeanslesstimetospendonschoolwork.Thishasalsobeencalledthe‘zerosum´approach:alargeramountoftimespendsonsportshasanegativeimpactonschool

performance.However,French,AmericanandAustralianresearchhasproventhatthelogicof‘zerosum’isnottrue(Hervet,1951;Dwyer,1983;Sallisetal.,1999).Morephysicaleducationinschools,resultinginlesstimeforothersubjects,doesnothaveanegativeinfluenceonschoolperformance,astheschoolperformancesofpupilsstaythesameorimprove(Visscheretal.,2011).Besides,theattractivenessofSfDprojects,alsoforchildrenwhoarenotengagedinaschoolorotherdevelopmentalprogram,makesthatsportcanbeusedasatooltoencourageyoungpeopletoenrollinaschoolprogramandtoencourageattendance(Kay&Dudfield,2013).

Inshort,therelationshipbetweensportfordevelopmentandeducationhasbeenproventobepositiveorneutral.Sportcanleadtobettereducationalresultsandhascertainlynonegativeeffectontheeducationaldevelopmentofchildren.But,thisrelationshipcanonlybeseenasindirect.Participationinsportleadstodevelopmentofcertainskills,whichsubsequentlyleadstoimprovededucationalperformance.Theseintermediateoutcomeswillbediscussedinthenextparagraph.

Therelationshipbetweensportfordevelopmentandeducationhasbeenproventobepositiveorneutral.

4.1.1 Intermediateoutcomes

Itcanbearguedthattwodifferentintermediatestepsplayaroletowardsbettereducationalresultsthroughsport:1)thedevelopmentofsocialorpsychologicalskillsand2)thehealthandfitnessthatfollowsafterregularlyparticipatinginsport.

DevelopmentofsocialandpsychologicalskillsAsmentionedinparagraph3.2,sportleadstothedevelopmentorimprovementofsocialandpsychologicalskillsasdiscipline,effectiveworking,self‐esteemandself‐efficacy.Sportprogramsprovideyoungpeopletheopportunitytodevelopthemselvesasathletes,sportcoachesorleaders.Theycantakeanorganizationalroleinthecommunityandbecomepeerleaders(Kay&Dudfield,2013;Coalter,2010).

Also,sportimprovesdealingwithaspectsofsportsuchaswinning,losingandimprovingyourselfmeanforyoungpeoplethattheydeveloporimproveskillsforself‐reflectionandself‐regulation(Boonstra&Hermens,2011).Theseskillsareimportantforlearning.Sportisanenvironmentwherepeoplestrivetowinandtoachievecertaingoals.Experiencesfromthiscontextcanalsobeusedinothercontexts:childrenlearntopursuegoalsinlife.Thoseskillscanbetransferredtootherlifedomains,suchasschool.Itisassumedthatthoseskillshelpchildrentoachievebetterschooloutcomes.Thiscanbeillustratedbyanexampleofacomparativestudyofseveralarticles.Ekeland,HeianandHagen(2005)conductedameta‐analysisontherelationbetweensportandself‐esteemofchildrenandyouthbetweenthreeandtwentyyearsold.Theyfoundthatsportintheshortrunleadstoimprovedself‐esteem.Thishasnotalwaysbeenproven:somestudiesshowapositiveeffect,whileotherstudiesshownoeffectatall.Negativeeffectswerenotfound.

ImprovedhealthandfitnessAsecondapproachisthatsportleadstohealthandfitness,asstressedinparagraph3.2,whichhasapositiveeffectoncognitiveabilitiesbecauseofbiochemicalfactors.Severalstudieshavebeenconductedtoprovethisstatement.AstudyinAberdeenshowedthatchildrenwhoparticipatedinphysicalactivityhavebettercognitiveskillsthanchildrenwhichdidnotparticipate(Hilletal.,2010).AcomparativestudyonfiveDutchsportinterventionsalsofoundthatschoolperformanceimprovedamongtheparticipants.However,thereisnocertaintyaboutthecausalityandresearchersconcludedthatmoreacademicresearchisneeded(Jacobs&Diekstra,2009;Boonstra&Hermens,2011).

Therelationshipbetweensportandcognitiveabilitiesisexplainedbythefactthatmotorskillsgoalongwithgoodcognitiveskills,especiallyregulationskills(Wassenbergetal.,2005).Regulationskills,likeplanningandproblemsolvingcapacity,areassumedtobeimportantinaneducationalsetting.Hartmanetal.(2010)foundthatgoodmotorskillsgoalongwithregulationskillsforchildrenwithlearningproblems.Houwenetal.(2007)concludethatsportandplayaregoodsettingstodevelopmotorskillsandregulationskills.However,notallscientistsagree.Etnieretal.(2006)conductedameta‐analysison51studiesontherelationbetweencardiovascularfitnessandcognitiveskills.Theirresultsstatedthatfitpeopledidnothavebettercognitiveskills.AnimportantremarktothisresultisthatthestudiesthatwereusedbyEtnieretal.mainlywereconductedamongadults.Therefore,therelationshipbetweenfitnessandcognitiveskillsamongyouthandchildrenremainsquestionable.

Again,mostresultsarecontextual;participationinsportdoesnotautomaticallyleadtopositiveeffects,buttheeffectsdependonthetypeofsportandthecontext.Sportcanonlyleadtomorechildandyouthdevelopmentthrougheducationifcertainconditionsaremet.

4.1.2 Conditions

Severalconditionsinthesportcontextareimportantfortheextenttowhichsportleadstoimprovededucationalperformance.First,thereisthenecessarycondition‘participation’:childrenneedtoparticipateinsport(programs).Thismeanssporthastobeofferedinanaccessibleandattractivewaytothetargetgroup.Furthermore,severalsupportingconditionscanbedetermined:1)Positivecoachinginachildorientedsetting,2)Didacticalbasics,3)Asupportivesocialenvironment,4)cooperationwithschoolsandcommunitywork.

PositivecoachinginachildorientedsettingGoodcoaches,trainersorleadersareessential(Coalter,2007).With‘good’,Coalterreferstopositivecoachingandpayingattentiontoapositivelearningenvironment.Agoodlearningenvironmentshouldbeachild‐orientedsetting(Devereaux,1971),asettinginwhichtheexistingknowledgeandskillsofchildrenarethemainstartingpointandattentionispaidtothepsychical,emotional,socialandintellectualdevelopment(Potracetal.,2000).

DidacticalbasicsA‘goodcoach’uses‘gooddidactics’.Sixdifferentdidacticalconditionscanbeidentified:

• funandenjoyment,• challenge,• variation,• aparticipativelearningprocess,• structuredrepetition,and• reflectionandasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext.

Especiallywhenworkingwithyoungerchildren,thefocusshouldbeonfun.Havingfunmotivateschildren,whowillenjoytheactivityandareabletogetthemaximumeffectoflearning(Coakley,2001).Thiscreatesapedagogicalclimateinwhichthechildrenlearntheirskillsbyplaying.Experiencingchallengecreatesahighpowered,excitingtraining,whichallowschildrentolearnoptimallyanddeveloptheirtalents.Challengesteachchildrennottogiveupeasily(Wormhoudtet.al.,2013).Thisconceptisbasedonthebelievethatindividualswillgrowwhentheyfacechallengingsituations,whichenablesthemtoovercometheirhesitancyorfear(Brown&King,2000;Proutyetal.,2007).Childrenwhoexperienceahealthylevelofchallengeswilltakethemaximumoutoftheirlearningprocess.Variation,eitherinthecompositionofthegrouporintheofferedexercises,effectsthelearningprocesspositivelybymotivatingchildrentoachieveanoptimallevelofchallenge,funanddevelopmentinthelearningprocess(Wormhoudtetal.,2013).Thelearningprocessshouldhaveaninteractivecharacter,becausethisincreasestheexperience(Roussou,2004)andthishelpstheparticipantstoreflectontheirownbehaviorandonwhattheyhavelearned.Boudetal.(1985)statethatlearningbydoing,evaluatinganddoingthingsagaininordertoimprovetheactivityarecrucialelementsinaneffectivelearningprocess.Finally,agoodpedagogicalclimatecomprisesasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext,withphysicalandpsychologicalsafety.

SupportivesocialenvironmentAthirdimportantconditionthatinfluenceslearningofachildorteenageristhesocialenvironment.Koekoek,KnoppersandStegeman(2009)conductedresearchamongschoolchildrenandconcludedthatthegroupinwhichchildrenplaysportisimportant.Howtheyexperiencesportandwhethertheylearnnewthingsdependspartlyonthemotivationofotherparticipatingchildren.Unmotivatedchildrencanbeseenasanobstacleinthelearningprocess.Relatedtothereactionsofotherchildrenisthesupportofparents.Ifparentsareinvolvedinthesportactivityandiftheyareinformedandsupportive,moresuccessfuloutcomescanbeexpected.

CooperationwithschoolandcommunityworkAfourthconditionisthecooperationbetweenschoolsandothercommunitybasedorganizationsandthesportfordevelopmentprogram(Lederach,2005).Itismorelikelythatprogramshavesuccessifthesportactivitiesarelinkedtoschoolandlearningsituations.Sportcanbeatooltostimulateschoolperformanceandschoolcanbeatooltostimulatesport.Therefore,somesportfordevelopmentprogramsexplicitlyuseschoolsettingstooffersportinordertoincreasethereach.

4.2 Childandyouthdevelopment:BehaviorchangeTheexpectationsoftheimpactofsportonbehaviorchangeofchildren,youthandyoungadultsarehigh.Behaviorchangecanbeseenfromabroadperspective.Forexample,sportisexpectedtoreducenegativeandcriminalbehavior,butsportshouldalsocontributetothelearningoflifeskills.Itisassumedthatthroughsportparticipantslearntocooperate,positivelychangeattitudesandvaluesandlearntocopewithlosing.Sportcanhelptoapproachyoungsterswhoareusuallyhardtoreach,becausetheyarenotengaged(anymore)withschoolsorreligiousinstitutions(Holroyd&Armour,2003).However,thecontrarymightalsobeapplicablewhenfocusingspecificallyonchildrenandyouth;sportmightalsoserveasacontextwhereinalotofviolenceandaggressiontakesplace.

Scientificresearchshowsthatsportprogramshavebookedgoodresultsthatmightleadtobehaviorchange.Childrenengagedinsportprogramswereforexamplelessoftensendoutofclassandwereshowinglessnegativebehavior(Sandford,Duncombe,&Armour,2008).Atthesametime,CameronandMacDougall(2000)studiedasportprograminAustraliaandfoundthatsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtobenefitsintheformofcharacterbuilding.Theyseethesenseofbelongingandthedevelopedrelationshipsaskeyresultsthatareoutputsoftheprogram.Justasstatedinparagraph3.2,theyalsostressthattheintroductionofsportandphysicalactivityalonecannotachieveabehavioralchange,likethepreventionofcrime.

Adirectrelationshipbetweenparticipationinsportsandreducedbehaviorproblemshasnotbeenproven.Theremightbeanindirectrelation,becausesportleadstoawiderangeofintermediateoutcomesthatmightinfluencebehaviorandthedevelopmentofchildren(SDPIWG,2007).

Sportleadstoawiderangeofintermediateoutcomesthatmightinfluencebehaviorandthedevelopmentofchildren

4.2.1 Intermediateoutcomes

ScientistslikeSchafer(1969),Morrisetal.(2003)andCarmichael(2009)mentionseveralintermediateoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentprogramsthathelptoreducenegativebehavior:sportreducesboredomandprovidesagoodalternativeforcriminalpracticesandantisocialbehavior,becauseitgivesa‘kick’thatteensneedwhilegrowingup.Sportdecreasesthe‘unsupervised’leisuretimeofyouth,whileprovidinganalternativesocialenvironmentwheretheycanlearnpositivenormsandvalues(SDPIWG,2007).Inthissocialenvironment,sportalsoprovidesanalternativewaytoincreasestatusamongpeers.Sportleadstomoreself‐esteem(Daniels&Leaper,2006;Sandfordetal.,2008),whichforsomeyoungstersmighthelptoprotestagainstimposedcriminalbehaviorbypeers.Sportprogramsgivethemasenseofbelongingwiththeirteammates,whichalsohelpsto‘escape’fromcriminalfriends.Therefore,thereisadifferencebetweenteamandindividualsports.Participationinindividualsportsresultsinmoreself‐confidenceinconductingindividualtasksandparticipationinteamsportsleadstomoreperceivedcontrolonrelationships(VandenHeuveletal.,2007).Teamsportshelpparticipantsalsotodevelopcommunicationanddecision‐makingskills(Kay,2009).

However,researchshowsthatsportcanalsoleadtonegativeoutcomes.Sportcanhavea‘darkside’:youngsterswhopracticeboxing,wrestling,martialartsandweighttrainingshowmoreantisocialbehavior.EndresenandOlweus(2005)usesociallearningtheoryasapossibleclarificationforthisoutcome;whatyoungsterslearninsport,theywilluseaswelloutsideofsport.Inthiscase,theylearntosolveconflictsbyfighting.Asecondpossibleexplanationisthespecificsportculture,whichischaracterizedbymachobehavior(Endresen&Olweus,2005).Whensportisusedastoolforbehaviorchangeamongyoungpeople,thecontextandconditionsarecrucialfortheimpact.

4.2.2 Conditions

Researchershavelinkedseveralsupportingconditionstothesuccessofaprograminachievingbehavioralchange,regardingtheorganizationoftheprogram,andthequalityandcompetencesofthesportleadersandthereactionsofthepeergroup.Severalresearchersstressthatthereisno‘onesizefitsall’strategy(Morrisetal.,2003;Sandfordetal.,2008;RightToPlay,2013).Differenttypesofproblemsaskforspecificapproaches.However,some‘bestpractices’,highlyvaluableformostprojects,canbeidentified.

Smallgroups,clearobjectivesandcooperationwithrelevantactorsSandford,ArmourandWashington(2008)mentionacarefullymanagedprogramthatconsistsofsmallgroupsasasuccessfactor.Morrisetal.(2003)agreewiththemonthefactthatcooperationwithrelevantactorslikeschool,communityworkersandfamilyisimportantforasuccessfulprogram;ifpossible,asportfordevelopmentprojectshouldbeembeddedinaschoolprogramorcomparablepartsofdailylifeofchildrenandyouth.AccordingtoanevaluationreportofRightToPlay(2013),italsohelpsifaprogramhasclearandrealisticobjectives.Theparticipantsshouldalsoparticipateintheformulationandsettingofthesegoals(Sandfordetal.,2008).

EmpatheticcoacheswithleadershipskillsandsamebackgroundastargetgroupRegardingthecompetencesofsportleaders;thetrainersandcoachesshouldbeabletobuildfriendlyrelationshipswiththeparticipants.Anidealleadershouldempathize,showconcernsandinterest,havehumor,createmutualtrustandrespect,setrulesandrealisticgoalsandbe

consistent:heorsheshouldshowleadershipskills.Whathelps,accordingtoNichols(1997),isatrainerorcoachwiththesamebackgroundastheparticipants.Suchaleaderisabletobuildarelationshipwiththeparticipants,whichisgroundedonmutualtrust.Thesecoachesknowthelocalcontextandtheyouth.Ataskfortheleader,trainerorcoachisalsotoreflectonwhattheparticipantshavelearned.Iftheleaderspayattentiontogainingcertainskillswithinthesportactivity,andmaybeevendiscussthemwiththeparticipants,theseskillscanbetransferredtolifedomainsoutsidesport(Papacharisisetal.,2005).

PeeracceptanceAfinalconditionforsuccessisthepeergroup.Whenchildrenoryoungstersreceivepositivereactionsfromfriends,socalled‘peeracceptance’,thisleadstomoreself‐esteemthroughsport(Koekoek,Knoppers,&Stegeman,2009).Thisprocesscanbeencouragedbythesportleaders;theacceptanceorappreciationoftheteachersisofimportance.

Figure9:Therelationchainofsportandchild&youthdevelopment

Sportasa‘siteforsocialization

experiences’

NecessaryconditionParticipationinsport

Supportingconditions:

‐Positivecoachinginachildorientedsetting

‐Didacticalbasics:funandenjoyment,challenge,variation,aparticipativelearningprocess,structuredrepetition,andreflectionandasafeandstimulatinglearningcontext.

‐Supportivesocialenvironment

‐Cooperationwithschoolsandcommunityorganizations.

‐Smallgroups,clearobjectivesandcooperationwithrelevantactors

• Empatheticcoacheswithleadershipskillsandsamebackgroundastargetgroup

• Peeracceptance

Intermediateoutcomes:

‐Socialandpsychologicalskills

‐Improvedhealthandfitness

‐Alternativeforcriminalpracticesandantisocialbehavioroutofboredomor‘unsupervised’leisuretime

‐Learningpositivenormsandvalues

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcome:

Childandyouthdevelopment:‐Improvededucationalresults

‐Reducedbehavioralproblems

Externalvariables

‘TheMomentofTruth’

4.3 GenderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowermentGirlsandwomencontinuetolackaccesstothesamequalityoflifeasmen,especiallyinlowandmiddleincomecountries(Brady&Banu‐Khan,2005;Nanayakkara,2012).Foryears,policymakersandactivistsaretryingtochangetheinequalitybetweenmenandwomen.TherighttogenderequalityisestablishedintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948);andin1979theUnitedNationsorganizedtheConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW).Genderequalityineducation,employmentandrepresentationisoneoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Althoughpoliciesaredeveloped,anddespitetheemergenceofwomanmovementsandtheirefforts,inmanycountriesequalitybetweenmenandwomenstilldoesnotexist.Theempowermentofgirlsandwomenisoftenseenasasteptowardsequality.Therefore,moregenderequalityandtheempowermentofwomenandgirlsaresimilarlymentionedasdesiredoutcomesformanySfDprojects.

Justbeingabletoparticipateinsportisforwomeninsomecountriesanovelty.Forinstance,forseveralyears,accesstoparticipationinsportandphysicalactivityhasbeenrestrictedforMuslimwomeninIran.TheMuslimWomen’sGames,however,hasprovidedsomeIranianwomenwithanovelopportunitytoengageinsportontheirowntermsinagender‐segregatedenvironment,andisservingasacatalysttoincreasetheoverallparticipationofIranianwomeninsportasbothparticipantsandcoaches(Pfister,2006).Sportcanprovideanuniqueopportunitytoreachavulnerableandotherwisehardtoreachgroup,suchasgirls.QualitativedatafromtheMathareYouthSportAssociation(MYSA)inKenyaindicatesthatoneofthemostimportantbenefitsoftheprogramforyounggirlsisthesexual‐healtheducationcomponentregardingHIVandAIDSprotection(Belewa,2005),asubjectthatismoredifficulttodiscussinamixedgendergroup.Gender‐basedSfDprogramsareidealforthedisseminationofhealth‐relatedmessagesandhealtheducation(Brady,2005).

Researchconsistentlypointsoutthatthesignificantincreaseinthenumberofgirlsandwomeninsporthasdonemuchtodismantleconventionalnotionsofgenderandtopromotegenderequality(SDPIWG,2007).Althoughcorrelationevidenceisoftenstrong,thereislittleevidenceofcausalityintermsofbeneficialoutcomesofsportparticipation.Itremainsimportanttoconsidercontextualfactors.Thesportexperiencesofgirlsandwomenindevelopingcountries,oreventheaccessibilityofsports,andtheoutcomesintermsofgenderequalityandempowerment,areinseparablefromothersocio‐culturalfactors,suchassocialclass,religiousaffiliation,regionalconcerns,andgeographicallocation(Pfister,2006).Nevertheless,theuseofsportandphysicalactivityasatoolfordevelopment,andasameansofempoweringwomentotakestridestowardsachievingjustice(Small,2002),shouldbeconsideredasaviableoptionthatiswellsupportedbyresearchevidence.

TheoutcomesofSfDintermsofgenderequalityandempowerment,areinseparablefromothersocio‐culturalfactors,suchassocialclass,religiousaffiliation,regionalconcerns,andgeographicallocation.

4.3.1 Intermediateoutcomes

Basedoncurrentresearchevidencedocumentingtherelationshipbetweensportandphysicalactivityprogramsorinterventionsforgirlsandwomen,participationisgenerallyassociatedwithpositiveresults.Benefitsforgirlsandwomeninbothhigh‐incomecountriesandlower‐andmiddle‐incomecountriesrelateto1)socialinclusion,2)self‐esteemandempowerment,3)dismantlinggendernormsand4)providingleadershipopportunities(SDPIWG,2007).

SocialinclusionandsocialintegrationThemostsignificantfindinginthisreviewconcernssport,gender,andsocialintegration.Fabrizio‐Pelak(2005)&Hargreaves(1997)havedocumentedthesocialbenefitsofsportparticipationforwomeninthepost‐apartheiderainSouthAfrica.Inacountrywhereattentiontoracialoppressionhasservedto“trump”genderinequality,footballparticipationisservingasavehicleforfemaleplayersfromdiversebackgroundstomentoroneanother,aswellastodemonstratecareandfriendship.

Brady(2005)andBrady&Banu‐Khan(2002)havedocumentedthesocialoutcomesassociatedwithsportsparticipationintheIshraq(Egypt)andMYSA(Kenya)girls’footballprogram.Brady(2005)relatedsportparticipationtotheconceptofa‘safespace’.Accesstosafespaceiscrucialforoverallhealthanddevelopment,butsuchspacebecomesincreasinglyconfined,restrictive,enclosed,anddomesticasgirlsapproachadolescence,especiallyindevelopingcountries.Inadditiontotheroleofsportinenhancingsocialinclusion,integration,reconstruction,friendshipandsocialties,sportassistsinexpandingaccesstosafesocialspacesforgirlsinlowerincomecountries,therebyallowingthemtotakechargeandownershipofspace(Brady,2005).Asafesocialspacecanbeusedasaneutralplatformfordialogueandinteractioninaconflictsituation(Kay&Dudfield,2013).ReportsfromtheNigerianAssociationforWomeninSports(NAWIS)conferencealsounderscorethecrucialroleofsportandphysicalactivityinfacilitatingsocialcohesionamonggirlsandwomen,friendship,andsocialinteractioninNigeria(Adeyanju,Aliu,&Chado,1993).

Overall,thereissignificantevidencetosuggestthatsportandphysicalactivityparticipationmayactasacatalystforsocialinclusion,socialintegration,andrelationshipbuildingforgirlsandwomen.Theseareimportantintermediatestepstowardsgenderequalityandtheempowermentofgirlsandwomen.

Self‐esteem/empowermentSelf‐esteemisamulti‐dimensionalpsychologicalconstruct.Itreferstoameasurementoffeelingsofpositiveself‐worthinseveraldomains(Richman&Shaffer,2000).Agreatdealofresearchhasbeencarriedoutusingtheseconstructs,andsomeoftheresultsarereviewedhere.Improvementsinself‐esteemthroughsportparticipationmaybeenhancedbyfeelingsofaccomplishmentandperceptionsofimprovedphysicalappearance,aswellasdemonstratingahighdegreeofcommitmenttoexercise.

Evidenceisprovidedwhichsupportstheroleofsportandphysicalactivityparticipationinenhancingself‐esteemofgirlsandwomen,orassociatedconstructssuchasself‐perception,self‐worth,self‐efficacy,andself‐empowerment,andenhancedpersonalfreedom(Eickoff,Thorland,&Ansorge,1983;Kenen,1987;Warrick&Tinning,1989;Markula,1993).Forexample,theyreporthigherself‐esteem,confidence,andbodyimage(Young,1997)orenhancedlevelsofconfidence,

success,andmastery.‘Afeelingofbelongingness’andasenseofbeingseenandconfirmedwerealsoreported(Lindgrenetal.,2002).Notably,non‐participationhadanegativeimpactonself‐esteem(Richman&Shaffer,2000).AstudytoassesstherelationshipbetweenathleticparticipationbyadolescentgirlsintheUnitedStatesandincidentsofforcedsexualvictimizationalsonotedanegativeassociationbetweenthesetwovariables,suggestingthatsportparticipationmayoffersomeprotectiveeffectagainstsexualvictimization(Fastingetal.,2008).

Formanygirls,self‐esteemdecreasesduringadolescence,andthisperiodoftransitionisoftencharacterizedbyreducedphysicalactivityandsportparticipation,aswellasincreasinglyrestrictivegenderroles(Richman&Shaffer,2000;Brady,2005).Iftherearepotentialbenefitsfrommaintainingandenhancinggirls’andwomen’sself‐esteem,thensportparticipationseemstobeoneofthekeycomponentsinachievingthis.

Mostofthebeforementionedstudieswereconductedinhigh‐incomecountries.Fewerresearchexistthatstudiedsportfordevelopmentprojectsindevelopingcounties.FindingsfromtheIshraq‐andMYSA‐projectssuggestthatsportforgirlsplaysasignificantroleinenhancingself‐empowerment,self‐esteem,andpersonalfreedom(Brady&Banu‐Khan,2002;Brady,2005).Inaddition,qualitativeresearchonfemaleparticipantsin“MovingtheGoalPosts,KilifiKenya,”indicatesthatparticipationinfootballhassignificantlyincreasedlevelsofself‐esteem(Belewa,2005).

Althoughmostofthedatahavebeenproducedinhigh‐incomecountries,wecanconcludethatgirlswhoparticipateinsportandphysicalactivityaremorelikelytoexperienceincreasedself‐esteemandfeelingsofself‐empowerment.Ofcourse,thisoutcomecanonlybereachedwhensportisofferedinthe‘right’way.

ChallengingandtransforminggendernormsNearlyallofthesportstudiesdocumentorsuggestthetransformativepotentialofsporttochallengegendernorms.Mostresearcherssuggestthat,whilegenderequalityinsportremainsanelusivegoal,thecontinuedparticipationofgirlsandwomenhasmadegreatstridestowardsachievinggenderequalityincertaincontexts.Afterall,stepsarebeingtakentowards“levelingtheplayingfield”anddecreasingtherestrictivenatureofconventionalgenderroles.However,itisimportanttonotethat,incertainstudies,changinggenderrolesforgirlsandwomenismorebasedonpersonalexperiencesandanecdotes,ratherthanscientificresearch.

Afewresearchersfromhigh‐incomecountrieshaveconsideredhowsportservesasasiteforthecontinualrenegotiationandconstructionofgenderednormsandroles.Sometimes,sportservesasaplacetocreateawarenessofthegenderednatureofsportparticipation,andanunderstandingamongfemaleparticipantsthatgirlsoftenparticipateinsportsonboys’termsandstandards(Lindgrenetal.,2002).ParticipationintheMYSAgirls’programinKenyaisassociatedwithknowledgeandawarenessofgenderednorms;thegirlsareclearlyawarethatmaleplayershavebetteraccesstocoaches,equipment,playingtimes,andfacilities(Brady&Banu‐Khan,2002).SfDprogramsseethisawarenessasafirststeptowardsbehaviorchange,inlinewithFishbein&Azjen’s(1975)theoryofplannedbehavior.

Therefore,sportfordevelopmentprojectsdonotonlycreateawarenessaboutthedifferentgenderednormsandroles,butalsotrytochallengethesetermsandstandards.Forinstance,

participationinicehockeygivesfemaleplayersinCanadaanecessaryforuminwhichtheyactivelycontestandchallengeconventionalnotionsofgenderedplay(Theberge,2003),andgirlscanactasagentswhoactivelynegotiategenderinsportastheychoose,orresist,participationincertainathleticactivities(Azzaritoetal.,2006).Thiscanbetranslatedtothe‘outerworld’:Garret(2004)suggeststhatanactivelifestyleallowsgirlstoresisttherestrictive,traditionaldiscoursesoffemininity;and,inaretrospectivestudy,Richman&Shaffer(2000)foundthatyoungwomenwhoparticipatedinsportbeforegoingtouniversitydisplayedahigherdegreeofgenderflexibility.

However,theincreaseofawarenessisnotalwaysasteptowardsdevelopment.Awarenesscanleadtofrustrationifnothingchangesintheenvironment.Therefore,approachesthatfocusonawarenessarenotuncontested.Someorganizationsfocusonempowermentandthecreationofawarenessbywomenonly.ScientistslikeMisener&Mason(2010)warnthatthismightleadtoverynegativereactionsfromtheirenvironment,whichsometimesputsthewomeninanevenmorerestrictedsituation.Awarenessandachangeinperceptionshouldnotonlybecreatedbygirlsorwomen,butalsobytheboysandmenwhosurroundthem.Genderisarelationalconstruct;themeaningsoffeminineattributesareoftendefinedonlyinrelationoroppositiontocharacteristicsofmasculinityandachangeofnormsandvaluesshouldthereforebecreatedatbothsides.

SomeevidenceunderpinsthepossibilitiesofSfDprojectsinthisrespect:a“sportforpeace”programfordisengagedyouthhadtheeffectofboysdemonstratingagreaterwillingnesstoallowgirlstotakeownershipoftheprogram(Ennis,1999).Researchfindingsfromlowerandmiddleincomecountriesalsosuggestthatparticipationinsportandphysicalactivityplaysasignificantroleindismantlinggenderbarriersandnorms.ResultsfromtheMYSAprogramarethemosttelling:theboysintheprogramhaveadoptedfavorableandsupportiveattitudestowardsgirls’involvement,andthey“watchout”forMYSAgirlsintheslumsofNairobiandthebroadercommunity.Furthermore,despitesignificantbarrierstoaccess,suchaslackoftransport,financialconstraintsandresidualgenderbinaries,Fabrizio‐Pelak(2005)andHargreaves(1997)suggestthat,althoughfootballhastraditionallyfunctionedasanall‐male“flagship”orpreserveinSouthAfrica,femaleplayersareactivelyrenegotiatingbothmaterialandideologicalconstraints.Theyareforgingnewgenderedidentitiesasfemalefootballersinpost‐apartheidSouthAfrica.

Basedonthesestudies,itcanbearguedthatsportparticipationcreatesthepossibilityforlessrestrictiveandconventionalgenderroles.However,itisimportanttonotethat,despitetheircontributiontodecreasedgenderinequalities,sportanddevelopmentprogramsareusuallyrunforandbymen(Sartore&Cunningham,2007),andfewaredesignedforwomenalone.Insomecases,asafeenvironmentforwomenandgirlsmeansanenvironmentwithoutmen.Inothersituations,emancipationhasgonefurtherandthegoalinthesesituationsistocreateaspacewheremenandwomencaninteract.Therefore,onceagain,theorganizationofanSfDprojectshouldbeappropriateforthecontextinwhichittakesplaceandshouldpayattentiontotheacceptedleveloffreedomforwomenandthenormsandvaluesinthearea.

LeadershipandachievementopportunitiesSomestudieshavefoundevidenceinlowerandmiddleincomecountriesthatSfDprogramsprovidewomenwithaccesstoleadershipandcareeropportunities.Forexample,theMovingtheGoalPostsKilififootballprograminKenyahassuccessfullycreatedopportunitiesforself‐governance.The

girls’committeemembersorganizeandparticipateintheprogramatalllevelsofitsorganizationalstructure.Forexample,allmatchesareledbyfemalereferees(Belewa,2005).

DatafromparticipantsintheMYSAgirls’footballprograminKenyaillustratesthebenefitsofparticipationinprovidingimportantvenuesforleadershipdevelopmentandpersonalandprofessionalgrowth.Thegirlsvaluetheopportunityforspecializedtraininganddevelopmentintheareasofcoaching,refereeing,training,organizingtheleague,andthepeerandhealtheducationthatMYSAhasprovided.ThegirlsfromthisprogramthatwereabletoparticipateintheNorwayCupinternationalfootballcompetitionwerealsopositiveaboutthepublicrecognition,internationaltravelopportunities,athleticopportunities,leadership,andsuccess(Brady&Banu‐Khan,2002).

4.3.2 Conditions

Severalconditionsthatwillsupportthedeliveryoftheabove‐mentionedintermediateoutcomescanbedetermined.Recommendationsfromsportandgenderprogramssuggestthattheresultsoftheprogramdependonsupportingconditions,suchasgirls’participationthroughprogramdesign,andencouraginggirls’leadership,development,andsafetyoncetheyareinvolved.Brady&Banu‐Khan(2002)outlinedanumberofimportantrecommendationsforplanningandimplementingsportandgenderprogramsindevelopingcountries.Theseinclude:

• Retaininggirlsintheprogram,andsettingthetermsforparticipation:programfacilitatorsmustallowgirlstoenter,exit,andre‐entertheprogramwithease.

• Identifyingmeasuresthatwillensurethesafetyofgirlsintheprogram,andprotecttheirreputations:theseincludesafewalking,adultchaperoning,transport,andplayinggamesbeforedark.

• Providinggirlswithfemalerolemodelsandmentorsinthecommunity:thisincludesaccesstoguidance,assistance,andproblem‐solvingwithinthecommunity.

• Encouraginggirls’self‐expression,decision‐making,andleadership:inphysicallyactivesettings,girlsmaydramaticallyreadjusttheirbehaviorinthepresenceofboys;theymayretreat,avoidsituations,ordisplayinhibitedbehaviors(Brady&Banu‐Khan,2002).Forthisreason,itisessentialtoprovidegirlswithaccesstosingle‐sexactivitiesand“girlonly”spacesincertainathleticsituations.

• Encourageboystobemorerespectful:ithasbeenproposedthatwhengirlssucceedortakeonnewandunconventionalroles,boys’perceptionsofthemchangefavorably,andthereareopportunitiesforboystoadoptenlightenedviewsregardingtheplaceofgirlsinsport.

Hargreaves(1997)addsthatatallstages,womenfromlowerandmiddleincomecountriesshouldhavedirectinvolvementinprogramdesign,implementation,andtheorganizationalstructure,inordertoensuretheiractiveleadershipandroleindecision‐makingprocesses.Gender‐basedSfDprograms,likeprogramsonsexualeducation,shouldassessthehealth‐relatedneedsofaparticularregionandincorporatemessagesthatpertaintotheseissuesintotheprogramdesign.Wherelocalandregionalconcernsactasstructuralbarrierstoparticipation,itiscrucialthatsuchfactorsaretakenintoaccountintheplanninganddesignofgender‐basedSfDprograms(Brady,2005).Asaconsequence,effortsmustbemadetounderstandthemeaningandpurposeofsportandphysicalactivityinthelivesofgirlsandwomeninparticularlocalcontexts,sothatprogrammingreflectsthediverseneeds,perspectives,andmotivesofparticipants,andcapturesthenuancesandsubtletiesofgirlsandwomen’sinvolvementinsuchsportprograms.

Besides,Valoisetal.(2004)suggestthatthepositivepsychologicaloutcomesofpsychicalactivitycandependongender,andthereforeSfDprogramsshouldallowfordifferencesinthewayssportisofferedtoboysandgirls.Womenaresupposedtobemoreinneedofintimateinterpersonalrelations,whichamountstoorganizingmoreteamsports.Menexperiencepositivepsychologicalbenefitsfromphysicalactivityinavarietyofsports,includingindividualsports,andnotjustfromsportsthatarecharacterizedbycooperationandinterpersonalrelations,liketeamsports.However,mostotherscientistsdon’tmentionthisconditionintheorganizationofthesport(VandenHeuveletal.,2007).

NecessaryconditionParticipationinsport

Supportingconditions:

‐Settingtermsforparticipation ‐Femalerolemodelsandmentors‐Ensuresafetyandreputation ‐Encouragingfemaleleadership‐Respectfulandsupportivemaleresponses ‐Accesstosafesportsspaces‐Participationofbeneficiariesinprogramdevelopment‐Incorporatingdifferenceswhenofferingsportforgirlsandboys

Intermediateoutcomes:

‐Socialinclusionandintegration

‐Growthofself‐esteem

‐Dismantlinggendernorms

‐Leadershipdevelopment

Figure10:Therelationchainofsportandgenderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment

Sportasa‘siteforsocialization

experiences’

‘TheMomentofTruth’

Externalvariables

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes:

‐Genderequality‐Empowermentofgirlsandwomen

4.4 Peace‐buildingandconflictresolutionTheliteraturereviewshowsagrowingnumberofstudiesofprogramsaimingtopromotepeace,reconciliation,anddevelopmentinconflict‐riddenregions,notablytheBalkans,theMiddleEast,WestandCentralAfrica,SriLanka,andSouthAmerica(Giulianotti,2011).Despitetheacademicinterestinsportforpeaceandreconciliation,theroleofsportinpost‐conflictpeacebuildingremainspoorlyunderstood(Dyck,2011).Itisreportedthatparticipantshighlyvaluetheseprograms,butveryfewprogramshavebeencriticallymonitored(Giulianotti,2011)andfewstudiesaboutsportforpeacearepublishedinpeer‐reviewedmagazines.

Sincepeacebuilding,asafieldofstudy,lendsitselftopracticalapproachesthatseektoaddressunderlyingsourcesofviolentconflict,itissurprisingthatithaslargelyneglectedtotakeaninterestinsport,especiallyitsgrassrootsmodels.Moreover,fewofthestudiesonsportforpeacearegroundedinpeace‐buildingtheoryorframeworks.While,attimes,authorsrefertokeyconceptsorideasthatoverlapwithpeacestudies,thesport‐for‐peaceliteraturedoesnotemploythesamelanguage,modelsorframesthatwouldallowthetwoareastointeractaswellasbuildupontheirrespectivebodiesofknowledge.

Thisissurprising,becausetherearehighexpectationsofthepowerofsportforpeacebuildingandconflictresolution.Ontheonehand,sporthasbeenregardedasaninstrumentor‘universallanguage’forpeacefulcommunication.Therefore,sportisseenasatoolfor(re)buildingrelationshipsbetweenantagonisticgroups.InAfrica,footballinparticularhasastrongappealbecauseofitspopularityandabilitytomobilizeindividualsandcommunities(Dyck,2011).Ontheotherhand,sporthasbeenassociatedwithdifferences,inequalityandconflict.IllustrativeisGeorgeOrwell’softenquotedsentimentthatsportis‘warminustheshooting’(Orwell,1970:63).Althoughmodernsportsareregardedaslessviolent,contradictionsremainandsomescholarsseesportasstrategyofimperialismandconquest(cf.Darnelletal,2011;Tiessen,2011).

Scholarswarnforfalseandelaborateexpectationsassociatedwiththeprograms(Keim,2006;SDPIWG,2007),becausetheproblemsaremultidimensionalandcannotbesolvedbysportalone(Armstrong,2004a).TheSDPIWGreportmentionsforexamplealackofemployment,accesstoland,egalitariandistributionofincome,elementaryhealthprovision,affordablehousing,educationalopportunitiesandcleanwater,problematicpoliticalstructuresandAIDSasproblemsthatformthecontextofasportforpeaceprogram.Armstrong(2004b,p.498)summarizedthisas:“Rehabilitationandreintegrationprojectsaredoomedtofailifthereisnobetterlifeofferedtothedisaffectedde‐militarized”.However,thereissomethingthatcanbedoneviasportfordevelopmentprograms.ASfDprojectwillprobablynotstopawar,butthereareseveralintermediateoutcomesthatcanbereached.Sportcanberegardedasonetoolinanorchestraofmulti‐levelpeace‐buildingeffortsrequiredtoproduceharmoniouspeace.

Sportcanberegardedasonetoolinanorchestraofmulti‐levelpeace‐buildingeffortsrequiredtoproduceharmoniouspeace.

4.4.1 Intermediateoutcomes

Severalauthors(e.g.Sugden,2010;Dyck,2011;Lyras&WelthyPeachey,2011)arguethatundercarefullymanagedcircumstances,sportcanmakeapositive,butmodestcontributiontopeacebuilding.Sugden(2010)arguesthatsportisintrinsicallyvaluedasneutral,whichisimportantinaconflictsituation.

Themostimportantvalueofsportforpeacemightbetheopportunitytomakethecontact.Ifthatcontactismeaningful,interactiveandnotsuperficial,resolutionmightoccur(Baker&Esherick,2009).Interpersonaldialoguecanleadtoareductionofnegativebiasesandabreakdownofstereotypes(Höglund&Sundberg,2008).Theclaimsonthepossiblepositiveoutcomesofsport‐for‐peaceprogramscanbecategorizedintothreegroups:1)(re)buildingofrelationships,2)reintegrationofsoldiers,and3)reconciliation.

Relationship(re)buildingSportfordevelopmentprogramsofferasiteforrelationshipbuilding(SDPIWG,2007).AccordingtoLederach(2005),sportprogramsmaybecrucialincreatingopportunitiesforsocialinteractionthathavelongbeensuppressed.Hestressestheimportanceofcreatingsafeandaccessiblesocialspacesorrelationalspaces.Sportcanbeseenassuchasafeandsupportivespaceforrelationshipbuildingacrosswideanddiversepopulations(Keim,2003).Becauseeverybodyenjoyssport,regardlessoftheirbackground,age,economicprosperityorreligion(Richards,1997),inthesespaces,peoplecanmeeteachotherinanaturalway.Therefore,sportoffersimportantopportunitiesforsocialnetworkingandrelationshipbuilding,itmaycomplementpeace‐buildingstrategiesbasedonrelationalspaces(Lederach,2005).Keim(2003)alsoshowsthatmoreinterculturalfriendshipsgrowsinschoolwhenchildrenweredoingsportsinanintegratedteam.

ReintegrationofsoldiersAfterawar,soldiersgohome.Someofthemarewell‐trainedyoungmen,butothersarechildsoldiers.Especiallyforthem,asuccessfulreintegrationintoacommunitycanbehard.Theystrugglewiththeirpastandthecommunitycanbeunwelcoming(SDPIWG,2007).Sportcanhelpthemtounderstandamorenuancedformofviolenceandaddtothehealingamongyouthcombatantsduringtheirreintegrationprocess(Dyck,2011).Sport,inparticularfootball,hasproventoofferapossibilitytoreintegrate,becausesportis‘neutral’;whileplaying,someone’sbackgroundorpastactionsarenotimportant(Richards,1997;Sugden,2010).Moreover,theorganizationofafootballcompetitionmighthelptostrengthenrelationships(Armstrong,2002).However,sofarverylittlestudieshavebeenexecutedthatfocusonthisintegrationandmostofthe‘evidence’ismorebasedoncommonsensethanonempiricalfindings.

ReconciliationReconciliationarisesfromrelationship(re)building,butisbroaderthanthat.Italsoincludescomponentsoftruthandjustice(SDPIWG,2007).Sportmightaddtoreconciliationbylinkingwithadvocacygroupsandrecruitingpopularstarsasadvocatesforpeace.However,mostscholarsstatethevalueofsportforreconciliationiscontestable(Höglund&Sundberg,2008).Forinstance,Lea‐Howarth(2006)statesthatsportprogramsareincapableofplayingaroleinreconciliationandthatsportcannotaddressstructuralviolenceandtheurgenttasksofenvironmentalreconstruction,suchasremovaloflandmines.

However,severalnegativeoutcomesarealsopossible.Drawingonalargeandgrowingbodyofliteratureonglobalcitizenshipandpost‐structuralism,andonpost‐colonialcritiques,Tiessen(2011)arguesthatSfDnarrativeshavethepotentialtoreinforcethe'othering'ofcommunitymembersindevelopingcountries.Divisionsbetweenconflictiongroupscanbeworsened,sportcanleadtoexclusionofothersbecauseofastronger‘group’feeling.Besides,itmayalsocontributetopaternalisticconceptionsofdevelopmentassistance(Tiessen,2011).Thismightleadtomorecynicismandadisempowermentoflocalpeople(SDPIWG,2007).Ennis(1999)pointsatthefactthatsportencouragesdominantbehavior,eitherviahighlyskilledorviaaggressivegamebehavior.Thisaggressiondoesnotmatchwithsportforpeacegoalsandcanreinforceviolence.Ennis(1999)alsomentionsthefactthatlow‐skilledplayersmightnotbeengagedandtheirabilitymightnotbeimproved,evenwhentaughtbycompetent,committedleaders.Finally,theaddedvalueofsportforpeaceprojectscouldbeconsideredmodestwhencomparedtoothersportfordevelopmentprograms.Asportforpeaceprojectcandivertresourcesfrommoreproductiveactivities,eitherfrompeaceactivitiesorotherSfDprojects(Schrag,2012).

4.4.2 Conditions

Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatsportisasocialconstructanditsroleandfunctiondependslargelyonwhatwemakeofitandhowitisconsumed(Sugden,2005;Sugden,2010).Whilesportspersonsoftenassumethattheactivitiestheyorganizeconstituteauniversallanguage,Sugden(2006:221)warnsagainsttheover‐essentializingofsport:“Ifprojects…arelocallygrounded,carefullythoughtout,andprofessionallymanaged,theycanmakeamodestcontributiontowidereffortstopromoteconflictresolutionandpeacefulco‐existence”.Thisstatementraisesquestionsaboutwhichconditionsexactlyshouldbemet,andhowsportcanbeconstructedtomeetpeace‐buildingneeds.

ThoughtfulandcommittedvolunteersandcoachesThefirstconditionistheavailabilityofthoughtfulandcommittedvolunteersandcoaches.Severalauthorshighlighttheimportanceoftrainingandtheselectionofthevolunteersorcoachesthatruntheprograms.Peacebuildingisacomplexprocessanddemandshighlyskilledpeace‐builders(Keim,2003;Armstrong,2002,2004a&2004b;Gasser&Levinsen,2004;Sugden,2006;SDPIWG,2007).AsSugden(2006)notes:“Themostsuccessful‘off‐pitch’programswerethoseledbyknowledgeable,sympatheticandskilledfacilitatorsandtendedtobeactivityratherthanclassroombased”(Sugden,2006,p.228).Nearlyallresearchconfirmstheimportanceofselectionandtraining,andcommittedvolunteers,whoareculturallyawareandsensitive(Keim,2003;Donnelly&Coakley,2002;Sugden,2006;Gasser&Levinson,2004).Theyconcludethatcurrentandfutureprogrammingmustinvestinandvalueprogramleaders,whoareinkeyanddemandingpositions.

PartofalongtermprogramAsecondconditionisthatanSfDprojectshouldbepartofalongtermprogram.Playingagameinthemidstofconflictisunlikelytohavealonglastingimpactonpeace(Lea‐Howarth,2006;Lambert,2007).Tomakeaprojectmeaningful,ithastobeaseriesofcarefullystructuredsportingexperiences.Ifotherconditionsaretakenintoaccount,andiftheprojectisaccompaniedbyawidevarietyofcultural,educational,economicandpoliticalinterventionsthatforinstancedealwithsocialinequalityandsocialexclusion,itmightmakecontributiontothepeaceprocess(Donnelly&Coakley,2002;Lea‐Howarth,2006)

Community‐basedapproachAthirdconditionisacommunity‐basedapproach.Externalagenciesshouldbeawareoftheirrolein“insider‐outsider”powerdynamics.Therefore,theyshouldfocusonsupportingandcollaboratingwiththeinitiativesofthelocalcommunityaswellasrecognizingandbuildinguponthecommunities’assets.Asoutsiders,theymustbuildrelationshipswithlocalsinordertoproperlyunderstandandvaluetheculturalcontextofthecommunityinwhichtheyareworking,sothattheprogramthrivesfromthevaluedlocalknowledge(Sugden,2006).Insituationswhereoutsidegroupseitherestablishaprogram,orareinfluentialintheprogramduetotheirdonorpositions,itisessentialthattheyareguidedbycommunity‐developmentapproaches.Outsidegroupsmustavoidcreatingdonor‐clientrelationships(Hognestad,2006)or‘parachuting’outsidersinaconflictsituation(Schrag,2012).Instead,organizationsshouldworkas‘allies’andsupportandprovidespaceforcommunity‐ownedinitiatives.Localpartnersthatarecommunity‐widerecruitedshouldbeinvolvedinallimportantevaluations,decisionmaking,planningandimplementingprocesses(Donnelly&Coakley,2002;Sugden,2006).Externalagenciesmustbeempoweringinalloftheirpracticesandinclusiveofparticipatorydecision‐makingatalldecisionlevels(Boutlier,Cleverly&Labonte,2000).Donnelly&Coakley(2002)alsostresstheimportanceof‘agency’inprograms,referringtotheabilityofanindividualtobeinvolvedincreatingandtransformingthenatureoftheirphysicalactivity.WhiletheserecommendationsarerelevantinallSfDprograms,theyareespeciallyrelevantinsport‐for‐peaceworkinvolvinganintra‐stateformofconflict.Veryimportantisalsotheinvolvementofparents.Theyaretheonesthatinvestedmostinthewelfareoftheirchildren,andascommunitymembersandconstituents,parentsareanimportantvectorforeveryprogram’simpactonthecommunity.Theytooaredrawnacrosslineswhentheycometowatchtheirchildrenplayandhavefun;oncethere,theyfindthemselvescheeringwithformerenemieswhohavechildrenplayingforthesameteam(Gasser&Levinsen,2004).

AccesstosafesportfacilitiesAfourthconditionistheaccesstosafesportsspaces.Asmentionedbeforeinthechapterongenderequality,itisimportanttopayattentiontothequalityandquantityofsportsspaces(SDPIWG,2007).Political,economic,andsocialconditionscanmakechildrenhesitantofparticipatinginjointormulti‐culturalsportactivities(Keim,2003).Facilitieshavetobesafeandaccessible:Keim’sstudyinSouthAfricashowedthataffordableandsafetransportisalsoofcrucialimportancetothesuccessoftheseprograms.Thisconditionisespeciallytrueforsportforpeaceprojects,becauseremaindersofthewar(forinstance,landmines)canbeaseriousdanger.Partofaccessibilityisalsothatallgroupsinthecommunityhaveequalaccesstotheproject,includingmorevulnerablegroupslikechildrenorthedisabled,andalsoincludingtargetedracialorethnicgroups(SDPIWG,2007).

NoemphasisonscoreboardoutcomeAfifthconditionisthatthereshouldbenoemphasisonscoreboardoutcome.Lea‐Howarth(2006)placesvalueontheconflictingmomentsthatcanoccurinsport.Leadersskilledinpeace‐buildingcanusethesemomentstoeducatetheparticipants.Suchtransformationofaconflictrequireswell‐trainedandcapablefacilitators,aswehavestressedinthefirstcondition,butthesportprogrammingshouldavoidemphasizingthescoreboardoutcome;instead,itshouldfocusonthecontinuedprocessofparticipationandutilizetheseteachablemoments.

InterconnectionwithotherorganizationsinsocietyAsixthconditionisaninterconnectionwithotherorganizationsinsociety.Sportprogrammingseemstoshowsuccesswhenitinterconnectswithotherlayersandlevelsofsociety,ratherthanfunctioninginisolation.Sportisafirststepinestablishingnewcontactsandrelationshipsbetweenpeople,butforrealreconciliation,thesecontactsshouldbetransferredintotheordinarylife.Therefore,cooperationwithothersocietalorganizationslikeschools,churchesandbusinessesisnecessary.Asmiddle‐levelactors,Lederach(2005)notes,sportfordevelopmentorganizationsoccupykeystrategicpositionstobuildcross‐sectionalrelationships.Severalsport‐for‐peaceprojectswereabletoshowsuccessbyinterconnectingwithotherpartnersintheircommunity.Giulianotti&Armstrong(2011)studiedhowSfDprojectsworkinacontextwithamilitarypresence.Theysuggestthatsport‐basedpeacemakinginterventionsprovidethemilitarywithanewkindofinstitutionalfunction,andfreshwaysofbuildingpositivesociallinkstocivilianpopulations.Theystresstheimportanceofengagementbetweenciviliansandpeacekeeping,whichcanbeenforcedviasports.

NecessaryconditionParticipationinsport

Supportingconditions:(Organizationalandprogramcomponents)

‐committedvolunteersandcoaches ‐partofalongtermprogram‐community‐basedapproach ‐accesstosafesportsspaces‐noemphasisonscoreboardoutcomes ‐cooperationwithotherorganizations

Intermediateoutcomes:

‐Relationshiprebuilding

‐Reintegrationofsolders

‐Reconciliation

Figure11:Therelationchainofsportandpeace‐buildingandconflictresolution

Sportasa‘siteforsocialization

experiences’

‘TheMomentofTruth’

Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes:

‐Conflictresolution‐Peace

Externalvariables

5ConclusionandnextstepsInthischapter,thecentralquestionofthisreviewwillbeanswered:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?First,themainfindingsoftheliteraturereviewwillbesummarized.Then,DutchSfDpolicyandpracticewillbeoutlined,focusingonthespecificcharacteristicsofDutchpolicyandprograms.Finally,valuablenextstepswillbeproposed,relatedtothechallengesandopportunitiesinfrontoftheSfDsector.

5.1 Sport’spotentialtocontributetodevelopmentSporthassomeuniquefeaturestocontributetodevelopment,especiallyincomparisonwithotherinterventions.Individualsandgroupsallovertheworldareinterestedinsports,regardlessofbackground,age,race,religion,genderorstatus.Therefore,sportcanattracttargetgroupswhoareusuallyhardtoreach.Theycaneasilybeinvolved,sportisvisibleandaccessible,sportoffersrolemodelsandcontainsintrinsicvaluesthatplayanimportantroleinsociety.Particularsportactivitiesandsocialprocessesofparticipationcanbekeytoreachcertaindevelopmentgoals.Theuniquefeatureshavebeenacknowledgedinvariouspolicies,internationallyandintheNetherlands.

5.1.1 Claimsvs.empiricalresearch

Nevertheless,manyclaimsofthepowerofsportinpolicyandpracticecannotbemetaccordingtoempiricalresearch.Researchanalysishasmadeclearthatsporthasthepotentialtocontributetodevelopmentgoals,butsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtothedesireddevelopmentaloutcomes.Accordingtotheacademicliterature,healthistheonlyoverarchingoutcomethatshowsadirectrelationshipwithphysicalactivity.Forallotheroverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesitishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportanddevelopment.Thisalsocountsfor‘youthandeducation’,‘genderequality’and‘peaceandreconciliation’‐developmentgoalsthatarefociinDutchSfDprograms.

Atthesametime,academicresearchoffershandlestousesportasavehicletocontributetothesegoals.Itisimportanttoapproachsportas‘asiteforsocializationexperiences’,notasacauseofsocializationoutcomes.Itisnotsportinitselfwhichleadsautomaticallytodevelopment.Sporttakesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.Toprovideinsightinthepotentialofsportfordevelopmentandtobeabletocontributetodevelopmentinthebestpossibleway,wedevelopedabasicSfDmodel.ThismodeltakesintoaccountthattherelationbetweensportanddevelopmentoftenisindirectandthattheoutcomesofSfDprogramsdependonanumberof,sometimeshardtoaffect,variables.Themodelstartswithsportasasiteforsocializationexperienceandthendistinguishes‘necessaryconditions’,’supportingconditions’,‘themomentoftruth’,‘intermediateoutcomes’and‘overarchingoutcomes’,takingexternalvariablesintoaccountaswell.Anecessaryconditionforanyoutcomeisparticipationinsport.Supportingconditionsrefertotheprocessesandorganizationalandprogramcomponentsthatshouldleadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes.Frequentlymentionedsupportingconditionsarerelatedtotheorganizationofprogramsandactivities,theroleofcoachesorleadersandthesocialenvironmentinwhichtheactivitiestakeplace.SomeconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject,whileothersaremore

contextspecific.Ifconditionsaremet,sportmayleadtointermediateoutcomes.Examplesofintermediateoutcomesarethedevelopmentof‘lifeskills’,increasedsocialinteraction,butalsodevelopmentofleadershipandcommunitybuilding.Theseintermediateoutcomes,oftenreferredtoas(aspectsof)socialcapital,areanessentialelementintheachievementoftheoverarchingdevelopmentaloutcomeslikechildandyouthdevelopment,genderequality,conflictresolutionandpeace.Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatintermediateoutcomesarenotalwaysdesiredorpositiveoutcomes.Sportcanleadtoinjuries,toexclusionandtoanti‐socialbehavior.

Theexactmechanismsduring‘themomentoftruth’,whichresultineitherpositiveornegativeoutcomes,arestillunclear,includingthebestwayforSfDorganizationstofacilitate‘themomentoftruth’.Whatisrequiredisadevelopmentalapproachbasedonarealisticviewonthemeaningofsport,andaconcentrationonunderstandingthesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmightleadtodesiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsorsomeorganizationsincertaincircumstances(Pawson,2006).Fromthisperspective,monitoringandevaluationneedtopursueunderstandingviaparticipatory,process‐centeredandformativeevaluation(Shahetal.,2004;Coalter,2006,2007).

5.1.2 Dutchpolicyandpractice

ThereviewofDutchandinternationalpoliciesmakesclearthatDutchSfDpoliciesandprogramshavebeeninfluentialandhavehadimpact,bothatpolicylevelandinpractice,butfluctuatedovertheyears.Thiscanbetracedbacktoseveralfactors,suchasthevaryingpoliticalattentionandresources.ThecurrentSfDprogramallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.ThecurrentimplementingpartnersoftheDutchSFDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantroleinthecontinuityofDutchcontributionstoSfD,inandoutsidetheNetherlands.

TheseorganizationshaveusedtheirextensiveexperienceinSfDtocontributetooverarchingdevelopmentgoals.Theorganizationsdifferinthewaytheywanttocontributetodevelopment–workingwithdifferentapproaches,differenttargetgroups,andindifferentcountries.ThisfitswithinSfDpolicyintheNetherlandssince1998,whichcanbecharacterizedasdecentralizedandopentowardsdiversity.Asaconsequence,adistinct‘Dutchapproach’doesnotexist.However,therearesimilaritiesintheapproachesoftheMinistryofForeignAffairs,NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.First,theyallfocusontransferofknowledgeandskills.Thisisdonebydevelopingcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals,bysettinguplocalnetworksandbyincreasingthecapacityoflocalpeopleandorganizations.Second,localcoachesandleadersareessentialasrolemodelsandeducators.Third,programsaimtoconnectthegrassrootsoperations(microlevel)withlocalorganizations(mesolevel)andnationalandinternationaladvocacyefforts(macrolevel)level.Theprogramsarebasedonneedsandcontext,tailor‐madeandcohesive.Thisisinlinewithscientific

Whatisrequiredisadevelopmentalapproachbasedonthede‐reificationof‘sport’,andaconcentrationonunderstandingofthesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmightleadtodesiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsorsomeorganizationsincertaincircumstances.

researchindicatingthattheinvolvementoflocalleadersandlocalcapacitybuildingandtheuseoflocalleadersasrolemodelsarekeystoachievedesiredoutcomes.

5.2 ValuablenextstepsforDutchSfDorganizationsThefollowingquestionis:HowcanDutchSfDorganizationsusethepotentialofsportinthebestpossibleway,takingintoaccounttheirownexpertiseandexperience,DutchSfDpolicyandprograms,andevidenceandlessonslearnedfromempiricalstudies?

Theacademicliteraturelearnsthat,tomaximizetheoutcomes,SfDorganizationsshouldacceptthatadirectrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopmentishardtoproveandthattheyshouldfocusonintermediateoutcomesinstead.AccordingtothepresentedSfDbasicmode,SfDorganizationsshouldmakesurethatthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremettoincreasethechanceonthedeliveryofthedesiredoutcomes.IntheyearstocomeoneofthemainchallengesfortheSfDsectoringeneralistoinvestinqualityofprogramsandsustainabilityofresults.

Dutchorganizationscanplayavaluableroleindealingwiththesechallenges,makinguseofthefindingsandrecommendationsofthisreview.Theycanincreasetheirimpactusingsportfordevelopmentbyastrongerfocuson:

1. FacilitatingthemomentoftruthTheinteractionbetweenthesportcoachandparticipantisdecisivefortheoutcomesofaprogram.ThethreeDutchSfDorganizationshaveastrongfocusontheeducationofsportcoachesandcommunityleadersandthushaveadirectimpactonthemomentoftruth.Theycanincreasetheimpactoftheirprogramsbyastrongerfocusonfacilitatingthemomentoftruth.Importantaspectsoffacilitatingthemomentoftruthare:

• Backgroundanalysesandneedsassessmentsofparticipantsandlocalcontexts• Preciseselectionofcoachesandleadersbyqualitativeentryrequirements• Tailorededucationprogramsforcoachesandleaders• Sharingbestpracticesamongcoachesandleaders• Establishingpeerreviewsofcoachesandleaders• Supervisionandfollow‐upprogramsforcoachesandparticipants

Ingeneral,‘facilitatingthemomentoftruth’meansthatSfDorganizationsoperatefromaservicemanagementperspective,facilitatingallparticipantsduringthemomentoftruthinthebestpossibleway.

2. Investinginlocalinvolvement,organizationalcapacityandpartnerships

Oneoftheimportantsupportingconditionsforoutcomesandimpactistheinvolvementoflocalbeneficiariesthemselvesandtheircommunities.Itisstronglyrecommendedtoalsoinvolvelocalcivilsocietyorganizations,i.e.sportorganizationsand/orotherorganizationsthatcansupportthemomentoftruthaswell.Furtherinvestmentinorganizationalcapacityandinlocalpartnershipsiscrucialtodeliversustainableprogramswhichhaveanimpactinthelongterm.

3. Programsatmicrolevel,structurallysupportedatmesoandmacrolevelInthefieldofsportfordevelopment,organizationsworkinacomplexenvironmentinwhichavarietyofstakeholdersisengaged,fromlocalorganizationstonationalgovernmentstointernationalsportorganizationstodonors.Alltheseactorsinfluence,directlyorindirectly,theactualdeliveryofSfDprograms.TheSfDorganizations–eitherlocalorforeign‐havetostructurallycooperatewithcivilsocietyorganizationstoalsomakesurethatrelationswithgovernments,multilateralinstitutionsand(i)NGOs,aresupportivefortheSfDprogramsatgrassrootslevel.

4. Integrationofpractice,policyandresearchThemoreisknownaboutthemechanismsduringthe‘momentoftruth’‐whichdeterminestheaspiredoutcomesattheendoftheday‐thebetterorganizationsareabletomakeadifferencewiththeuseofsportfordevelopment.ProgramscanbeimprovedifsystematiccooperationbetweenSfDorganizationsandlocalpartnersandacademicinstitutionsisstimulatedandfacilitated.Thiscooperationshould,besidesmonitoringandevaluation,leadtosmartintegrationofscientificresearchandinnovationwithinSfDprograms,especiallywithregardtotheorganizationofpartnershipandcapacitybuilding.Indoingso,DutchfundedSfDprogramscanbefurtherimproved,increaseimpactinthefieldandcontributetotheSfDsectorinternationally.

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FAQs

What are the goals of sport for development and peace? ›

Sport's attributes make it a valuable component of broader, holistic approaches in reaching the eight MDG benchmarks with targets aimed at: (1) Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, (2) Achieving universal primary education, (3) Promoting gender equality and empowering women, (4) Reducing child mortality, (5) ...

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What is the sports based youth development theory? ›

Sports-based youth development or SBYD is a theory and practice model for direct youth service. Grounded in youth development, sports psychology, and youth sports practice, SBYD aims to use the sport experience to contribute to positive youth development.

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What is the United Nations Sport for Development and Peace Plan? ›

The United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace (UNOSDP) was introduced by Kofi Annan in 2001. Its mandate was to coordinate the efforts undertaken by the United Nations in promoting sport in a systematic and coherent way as a means to contribute to the achievement of development and peace.

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Which SDG goal is related to sports? ›

SDG 16 – Promote Peaceful and Inclusive Societies for Sustainable Development, Provide Access to Justice for All and Build Effective, Accountable and Inclusive Institutions at all Levels (through the role sport plays in bringing people together)

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What is the role of sports in promoting peace and conflict resolution? ›

By building relationships between different groups, conflict can be transformed. In addition, sports can be used as a deterrent by teaching the values of good sportsmanship, teamwork, respect and communication skills needed to reduce tensions and prevent conflict.

What are the three types of goals in sport? ›

There are three main types of goals: (a) process goals, (b) performance goals, and (c) outcome goals. Athletes should use all three to maximize their goal-setting effectiveness.

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What are the three stages of development for youth sport? ›

There are three main phases of development for the youth athlete: Phase One (Exploration), Phase Two (Commitment) and Phase Three (Proficiency). While the developmental stages are issues for the entire family, some fundamental principles apply, regardless of phase.

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What is sport for development theory? ›

SFD can be defined as “the use of sport to exert a positive influence on public health, the socialization of children, youths and adults, the social inclusion of the disadvantaged, the economic development of regions and states, and on fostering of intercultural exchange and conflict resolution” [20].

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What is developmental sport? ›

Developmental sports provides an age-appropriate introduction to sports for children with and without intellectual disabilities, ages 6 – 12 years old. Resources for Developmental sports include a comprehensive implementation guide and sport-specific curricula from Special Olympics sport federation partners.

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What is the Sport for Development and Peace Initiative? ›

The SDP initiative, is a joint initiative between Qatar Charity and Qatar Fund for Development where the strategic partnership program, will pool expertise and resources to harness the cross- cutting transformative power of sport and to reaffirm the recognition of its value with regard to global peace and development.

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How can sports be used for peace and development? ›

At the grassroots or community level, sport can be seen to provide a useful way of creating an environment in which people can come together to: work towards the same goal, show respect for others and share space and equipment.

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What are the 3 main goals of the United Nations? ›

The main objectives of the United Nations are the maintenance of international peace and security, the promotion of the well-being of the peoples of the world, and international cooperation to these ends.

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How can sports promote sustainable development? ›

It promotes healthy lifestyles, reduces chronic disease risks, builds social connections, enhances mental well-being, and raises environmental awareness. Moreover, it serves as an educational tool, teaching children about healthy living, teamwork, and sportsmanship, while also empowering girls and women.